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FARM    ENGINES 

AND  HOW  TO  RUN   THEM 

THE  YOUNG  ENGINEER'S  GUIDE 


A    SIMPLE,   PRACTICAL    HANI)     BOOK,   FOR    EXPERTS    AS  WELL    AS 
FOR  AMATEURS,  FULLY  DESCRIHING  EVERY  PART  OF  AN  ENGINE 
AND  BOILER,   GIVING  FULL  DIRECTIONS  FOR  THE    SAFE  AND 
ECONOMICAL     MANAGEMENT    OF    BOTH ;     ALSO,    SEVERAL 
HUNDRED    QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS    OFTEN    GIVEN  IN 
EXAMINATIONS    FOR   AN    ENGINEER'S    LICENSE,     AND 
CHAPTERS     ON     FARM    ENGINE     ECONOMY,     WITH 
SPECIAL  ATTENTION  TO  TRACTION     AND  GASO- 
LINE   FARM     ENGINES.    AND    A    CHAPTER    ON 


The  Science  of  Successful  Threshing 


BY 

JAMES    H.    STEPHENSON 

And  Other  Expert  Engineers 


WITH  NUMEROUS  ILLUSTRATIONS  SHOWING  THE  DIFFERENT 
PARTS  OF  A  BOILER  AND  ENGINE,  AND  NEARLY  EVERY  MAKE  OF 
TRACTION  ENGINE,  WITH  A  BRIEF  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  DIS- 
TINCTIVE   POINTS    IN    EACH    MAKE. 


CHICAGO 

FREDERICK  J.   DRAKE  &  CO. 

PUBLISHERS 


LIBRARY 

BRANCH  OF  THE 

COLLEGE  01'  ArTRiniTr.TnRi? 


COPYRIGHT,   1903 

BY  FREDERICK  J.  DRAKE  &.  CO. 

CHICAGO,  ILL.,  U^.A. 


PREFACE 


This  book  makes  no  pretensions  to  originality.  It  has 
taken  the  best  from  every  source.  The  author  beUeves 
the  matter  has  been  arranged  in  a  more  simple  and  effec- 
tive manner,  and  that  more  information  has  been  crowded 
into  these  pages  than  will  be  found  within  the  pages  of 
any  similar  book. 

The  professional  engineer,  in  writing  a  book  for  young 
engineers,  is  likely  to  forget  that  the  novice  is  unfamiliar 
with  many  terms  which  are  like  daily  bread  to  him.  The 
present  writers  have  tried  to  avoid  that  pitfall,  and  to 
define  each  term  as  it  naturally  needs  definition.  More- 
over, the  description  of  parts  and  the  definitions  of  terms 
have  preceded  any  suggestions  on  operation,  the  authors 
believing  that  the  young  engineer  should  become  thor- 
oughly familiar  with  his  engine  and  its  manner  of  work- 
ing, before  he  is  told  what  is  best  to  do  and  not  to  do. 
If  he  is  forced  on  too  fast  he  is  likely  to  get  mixed.  The 
test  questions  at  the  end  of  Chapter  III.  will  show  how 
perfectly  the  preceding  pages  have  been  mastered,  and 
the  student  is  not  ready  to  go  on  till  he  can  answer  all 
these  questions  readily. 

The  system  of  questions  and  answers  has  its  uses  and 
its  limitations.  The  authors  have  tried  to  use  that  sys- 
tem where  it  would  do  most  good,  and  employ  the  straight 
narrative  discussion  method  where  questions  could  not 
help  and  v/ould  only  interrupt  the  progress  of  thought. 
Little  technical  matter  has  been  introduced,  and  that  only 
for  practical  purposes.  The  authors  have  had  traction 
engines  in  mind  for  the  most  part,  but  the  directions  will 
apply  equallv  well  to  any  kind  of  steam  engine. 

The  thanks  of  the  publishers  are  due  to  the  various 
traction    engine    and    threshing   m.ichine    manufacturers 

5 


J^a^/f- 


6  PREFACE. 

for  cuts  and  information,  and  especially  to  the  Thresher^ 
men's  Review  for  ideas  contained  in  its  "Farm  Engine 
Economy,"  to  the  J.  I.  Case  Threshing  Machine  Co.  for 
the  use  of  copyrighted  matter  in  their  ''The  Science  of 
Successful  Threshing,"  and  to  the  manager  of  the  Colum- 
bus Machine  Co.  for  valuable  personal  information  fur- 
nished the  authors  on  gasoline  engines  and  how  to  run 
them.  The  proof  has  been  read  and  corrected  by  Mr.  T. 
R.  Butman,  known  in  Chicago  for  25  years  as  one  of  the 
leading  experts  on  engines  and  boilers,  especially  boilers. 


THE 

YOUNG  ENGINEERS'  GUIDE 


CHAPTER  I. 

BUYING  AN  ENGINE. 

There  are  a  great  many  makes  of  good  engines  on  the 
market  to-day,  and  the  competition  is  so  keen  that  no 
engine  maker  can  afford  to  turn  out  a  very  poor  engine. 
This  is  especially  true  of  traction  engines.  The  different 
styles  and  types  all  have  their  advantages,  and  are  good 
in  their  way.  For  all  that,  one  good  engine  may  be  value- 
less for  you,  and  there  are  many  ways  in  which  you  may 
make  a  great  mistake  in  purchasing  an  engine.  The  fol- 
lowing points  will  help  you  tochoose  wisely: 

1.  Consider  what  you  want  an  engine  for.  If  it  is  a 
stationary  engine,  consider  the  work  to  be  done,  the 
sp^ce  it  is  to  occupy,  and  what  conveniences  will  save 
your  time.  Remember,  TIME  IS  MONEY,  and  that 
means  that  SPACE  IS  ALSO  MONEY.  Choose  the 
kind  of  engine  that  will  be  most  convenient  for  the  posi- 
tion in  which  you  wish  to  place  it  and  the  purpose  or 
purposes  for  which  you  wish  to  use  it.  If  buying  a  trac- 
tion engine,  consider  also  the  roads  and  an  engine's  pull- 
ing qualities. 

2.  If  you  are  buying  a  traction  engine  for  threshing, 
the  first  thing  to  consider  is  FUEL.  Which  will  be 
cheapest  for  you,  wood,  coal  or  straw?  Is  economy  of 
fuel  much  of  an  object  with  you — one  that  will  justify 
you  in  greater  care  and  more  scientific  study  of  your 
engine?  Other  things  being  equal,  the  direct  flue,  firebox, 

7 


8  YOUNG  engineers'   GUIDE. 

locomotive  boiler  and  simple  engine  will  be  the  best,  since 
they  are  the  easiest  to  operate.  They  are  not  the  most 
economical  under  favorable  conditions,  but  a  return  flue 
boiler  and  a  compound  engine  will  cost  you  far  more 
than  the  possible  saving  of  fuel  unless  you  manage  them 
in  a  scientific  way.  Indeed,  if  not  rightly  managed  they 
will  waste  more  fuel  than  the  direct  flue  locomotive  boiler 
and  the  simple  engine. 

3.  Do  not  try  to  economize  on  the  size  of  your  boiler, 
and  at  the  same  time  never  get  too  large  an  engine.  If 
a  6-horse  power  boiler  will  just  do  your  work,  an  8-horse 
power  will  do  it  better  and  more  economically,  because 
you  won't  be  overworking  it  all  the  time.  Engines  should 
seldom  be  crowded.  At  the  same  time  you  never  know 
when  you  may  want  a  higher  capacity  than  you  have,  or 
how  much  you  may  lose  by  not  having  it.  Of  course 
you  don't  want  an  engine  and  boiler  that  are  too  big,  but 
you  shotild  always  allow  a  fair  margin  above  your  an- 
ticipated requirements. 

4.  Do  not  try  to  economize  on  appliances.  You  should 
have  a  good  pump,  a  good  injector,  a  good  heater,  an 
extra  steam  gauge,  an  extra  fusible  plug  ready  to  put  in, 
a  flue  expander  and  a  header.  You  should  also  certainly 
have  a  good  force  pump  and  hose  to  clean  the  boiler,  and 
the  best  oil  and  grease  you  can  get.  Never  believe  the 
man  who  tells  you  that  something  not  quite  the  best  is 
just  as  good.  You  will  find  it  the  most  expensive  thing 
you  ever  tried — if  you  have  wit  enough  to  find  out  how 
expensive  it  is. 

5.  If  you  want  my  personal  advice  on  the  proper  en- 
gine to  select  for  various  purposes,  I  should  say  by  all 
means  get  a  gasoline  engine  for  small  powers  about  the 
farm,  such  as  pumping,  etc.  It  is  the  quickest  to  start, 
by  far  the  most  economical  to  operate,  and  the  simplest 
to  manage.  The  day  of  the  small  steam  engine  is  past 
and  will  never  return,  and  ten  gasoline  engines  of  this 
kind  are  sold  for  every  steam  engine  put  out.  If  you 
want  a  traction  engine  for  threshing,  etc.,  stick  to  steam. 
Gasoline  engines  are  not  very  good  hill  climbers  because 
the  application  of  power  is  not  steady  enough;  they  are 


BUYING  AN   ENGINE.  9 

not  very  good  to  get  out  of  mud  holes  with  for  the  same 
reason,  and  as  yet  they  are  not  perfected  for  such  pur- 
poses. You  might  use  a  portable  gasoline  engine,  how- 
ever, though  the  application  of  power  is  not  as  steady 
as  with  steam  and  the  flywheels  are  heavy.  In  choosing 
a  traction  steam  engine,  the  direct  flue  locomotive  boiler 
and  simple  engine,  though  theoretically  not  so  economical 
as  the  return  flue  boiler  and  compound  engine,  will  hi 
many  cases  prove  so  practically  because  they  are  so  much 
simpler  and  there  is  not  the  chance  to  go  wrong  with 
them  that  there  is  with  the  others.  If  for  any  reason 
you  want  a  very  quick  steamer,  buy  an  upright.  If  econ- 
omy of  fuel  is  very  important  and  you  are  prepared  to 
make  the  necessary  effort  to  secure  it,  a  return  flue  boiler 
will  be  a  good  investment,  and  a  really  good  compound 
engine  may  be.  Where  a  large  plant  is  to  be  operated 
and  a  high  power  constant  and  steady  energy  is  de- 
manded, stick  to  steam,  since  the  gasoline  engines  of  the 
larger  size  have  not  proved  so  successful,  and  are  cer- 
tainly by  no  means  so  steady ;  and  in  such  a  case  the 
exhaust  steam  can  be  used  for  heating  and  for  various 
other  purposes  that  will  work  the  greatest  economy.  For 
such  a  plant  choose  a  horizontal  tubular  boiler,  set  in 
masonry,  and  a  compound  engine  (the  latter  if  you  have 
a  scientific  engineer). 

In  general,  in  the  traction  engine,  look  to  the  conven- 
ience of  arrangement  of  the  throttle,  reverse  lever,  steer- 
ing wheel,  friction  clutch,  independent  pump  and  injec- 
tor, all  of  which  should  be  within  easy  reach  of  the  foot- 
board, as  such  an  arrangement  will  save  annoyance  and 
often  damage  when  quick  action  is  required. 

The  boiler  should  be  well  set;  the  firebox  large,  with 
large  grate  surface  if  a  locomotive  type  of  boiler  is  used, 
and  the  number  of  flues  should  be  sufficient  to  allow  good 
combustion  without  forced  draft.  A  return  flue  boiler 
should  have  a  large  main  flue,  material  of  the  required 
5-16-inch  thickness,  a  mud  drum,  and  four  to  six  hand- 
holes  suitably  situated  for  cleaning  the  boiler.  There 
should  be  a  rather  high  average  boiler  pressure,  as  high 
pressure  is  more  economical  than  low.    For  a  simple  en- 


lO  YOUNG  engineers'    GUIDE. 

gine,  80  pounds  and  for  a  compound  125  pounds  should 
be  minimum. 

A  stationary  engine  should  have  a  solid  foundation 
built  by  a  mason  who  understands  the  business,  and 
should  be  in  a  light,  dry  room — never  in  a  dark  cellar 
or  a  damp  place. 

Every  farm  traction  engine  should  have  a  friction 
clutch. 


CHAPTER  II. 


BOILERS. 

The  first  boilers  were  made  as  a  single  cylinder  of 
wrought  iron  set  in  brick  work,  with  provision  for  a  fire 
under  one  end.  This  was  used  for  many  years,  but  it  pro- 
duced steam  very  slowly  and  with  great  waste  of  fuel. 

The  first  improvement  to  be  made  in  this  was  a  fire 
flue  running  the  whole  length  of  the  interior  of  the  boiler, 
with  the  fire  in  one  end  of  the  flue.  This  fire  flue  was 
entirely  surrounded  by  water. 

Then  a  boiler  was  made  with  two  flues  that  came  to- 
gether at  the  smoke-box  end.  First  one  flue  was  fired 
and  then  the  other,  alternately,  the  clear  heat  of  one 
burning  the  smoke  of  the  other  when  it  came  into  the 
common  passage. 

The  next  step  was  to  introduce  conical  tubes  by  which 

the  water  could  circulate  through  the  main  fire  flue  (Gal- 

L    loway  boiler). 


riG.    1.      ORR    &    SEMi;uWER\S    STANDARD   HORIZONTAL 
BOILER,   WITH   FULL-ARCH    FRONT   SETTING. 

II 


12 


YOUNG  engineers'    GUIDE. 


The  object  of  all  these  improvements  was  to  get  larger 
heatmg  surface.  To  make  steam  rapidly  and  econom- 
ically, the  heating  surface  must  be  as  large  as  possible. 


But  there  is  a  limit  in  that  the  boiler  must  not  be  cum- 
bersome, it  must  carry  ^enough  water,  and  have  sufficient 
space  for  steam. 


BOILERS. 


13 


The  stationary  boiler  now  most  commonly  used  is  cyl- 
indrical, the  fire  is  built  in  a  brick  furnace  under  the 
sheet  and  returns  through  fire  tubes  running  the  length 
of  the  boiler.     (Fig.  i.) 

LOCOMOTIVE  FIRE  TUBE  TYPE  OF  BOILER. 

The  earliest  of  the  modern  steam  boilers  to  come  into 
use  was  the  locomotive  fire  tube  type,  with  a  special  fire- 
box. By  reference  to  the  illustration  (Fig.  2)  you  will 
see  that  the  boiler  cylinder  is  perforated  with  a  number 
of  tubes  from  2  to  4  inches  in  diameter  running  from  the 
large  firebox  on  the  left,  through  the  boiler  cylinder  filled 


FIG.  3.     THE  HUBER  FIRE  BOX. 


with  water,  to  the  smoke-box  on  the  right,  above  which 
the  smokestack  rises. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  walls  of  the  firebox  are 
double,  and  that  the  water  circulates  freely  all  about  the 
firebox  as  well  as  all  about  the  fire  tubes.  The  inner  walls 
of  the  firebox  are  held  firmly  in  position  by  stay  bolts,  as 
will  be  seen  in  Fig.  3,  which  also  shows  the  position  of 
the  grate. 


14 


YOUNG  ENGINEERS     GUIDE, 


BOILERS. 


15 


RETURN  FLUE  TYPE  OF  BOILER. 

The  return  flue  type  of  boiler  consists  of  a  large  cen- 
tral fire  flue  running  through  the  boiler  cylinder  to  the 
smoke  box  at  the  front  end,  which  is  entirely  closed.  The 
smoke  passes  back  through  a  number  of  small  tubes,  and 
the  smokestack  is  directly  over  the  fire  at  the  rear  of  the 
boiler,  though  there  is  no  communication  between  the  fire 
at  the  rear  of  the  boiler  and  it  except  through  the  main  flue 
to  the  front  and  back  through 
the  small  return  flues.  Fig. 
4  illustrates  this  type  of 
boiler,  though  it  shows  but 
one  return  flue.  The  actual 
number  may  be  seen  by  the 
sectional    view    in 


Fig.  5. 

The  fire  is  built 
in  one  end  of  the 
main  flue,  and  is 
entirely  surround- 
ed by  water,  as 
will  be  seen  in  the 
illustration.  The 
long  passage  for 
the  flame  and 
heated  gases  en- 
ables the  water  to 
absorb  a  maximum 
amount  of  the  heat 
o  f  combustion. 
There  is  also  an 
element  of  safety  in 


FIG.  5. 


SECTION  VI KW  OF  HUBER  RE- 
TURN   FLUD  BOILER. 


this  boiler  in  that  the  small  flues  will  be  exposed  first 
should  the  water  become  low,  and  less  damage  will  be  done 
than  if  the  large  crown  sheet  of  the  firebox  boiler  is  ex- 
posed, and  this  large  crown  sheet  is  the  first  thing  to  be 
exposed  in  that  type  of  boiler. 

W^ATER  TUBE  TYPE  OF  BOILER, 

The  special  diflference  between  the  fire  tube  boiler  and 
the  water  tube  boiler  is  that  in  the  former  the  fire  passes 


i6 


YOUNG  ENGINEERS'   GUIDE. 


through  the  tubes,  while  in  the  latter  the  water  is  in  the 
tubes  and  the  fire  passes  around  them. 

In  this  type  of  boiler  there  is  an  upper  cylinder  (or 


rA-ylf/za.  jA'-CO.  i.'V*'^ 


FIG,  6.     FREEMAN  VERTICAL  BOILER. 

more  than  one)  filled  with  water;  a  series  of  small  tubes 
running  at  an  angle  from  the  front  or  fire  door  end  of  the 
upper  cylinder  to  a  point  below  and  back  of  the  grates, 


BOILERS.  17 

where  they  meet  in  another  cylinder  or  pipe,  which  is 
connected  with  the  other  end  of  the  upper  cyhnder.  The 
portions  of  the  tubes  directly  over  the  fire  will  be  hot- 
test, and  the  water  here  will  become  heated  and  rise  to 
the  front  end  of  the  upper  cylinder,  while  to  fill  the  space 
left,  colder  water  is  drawn  in  from  the  back  pipe,  from 
the  rear  end  of  the  upper  cylinder,  down  to  the  lower  ends 
of  the  water  tubes,  to  pass  along  up  through  them  to  the 
front  end  again. 

This  type  of  boiler  gives  great  heating  surface,  and 
since  the  tubes  are  small  they  will  have  ample  strength 
with  much  thinner  walls.  Great  freedom  of  circulation 
is  important  in  this  type  of  boiler,  there  being  no  con- 
tracted cells  in  the  passage.  This  is  not  adapted  for  a 
portable  engine. 

UPRIGHT   OR  VERTICAL   TYPE    OF    BOILER. 

In  the  upright  type  of  boiler  the  boiler  cylinder  is 
placed  on  end,  the  fire  is  built  at  the  lower  end,  which 
is  a  firebox  surrounded  by  a  water  jacket,  and  the  smoke 
and  gases  of  combustion  rise  straight  up  through  ver- 
tical fire  flues.  The  amount  of  water  carried  is  relatively 
small,  and  the  steam  space  is  also  small,  while  the  heat- 
ing surface  is  relatively  large  if  the  boiler  is  sufficiently 
tall.  You  can  get  up  steam  in  this  type  of  boiler  quicker 
than  in  any  other,  and  in  case  of  the  stationary  engine, 
the  space  occupied  is  a  minimum.  The  majority  of  small 
stationary  engines  have  this  type  of  boiler,  and  there  is 
a  traction  engine  with  upright  boiler  which  has  been 
widely  used,  but  it  is  open  to  the  objection  that  the  upper 
or  steam  ends  of  the  tubes  easily  get  overheated  and  so 
become  leaky.  There  is  also  often  trouble  from  mud  and 
scale  deposits  in  the  water  leg,  the  bottom  area  of  which 
is  very  small. 

DEFINITION  OF  TERMS  USED  IN  CONNECTION  WITH  BOILERS. 

Shell — The  main  cylindrical  steel  sheets  which  form 
the  principal  part  of  the  bo'iler. 

Boiler-heads — The  ends  of  the  boiler  cylinder. 


l8  YOUNG  engineers'   GUIDE. 

Tube  Sheets — The  sheets  in  which  the  fire  tubes  are 
inserted  at  each  end  of  the  boiler. 

Fire-box — A  nearly  square  space  at  one  end  of  a 
boiler,  in  which  the  fire  is  placed.  Properly  it  is  sur- 
rounded on  all  sides  by  a  double  wall,  the  space  between 
the  two  shells  of  these  walls  being  filled  with  water.  All 
flat  surfaces  are  securely  fastened  by  stay  bolts  and  crown 
bars,  but  cylindrical  surfaces  are  self-bracing. 

Water-leg — The  space  at  sides  of  fire-box  and  below 
it  in  which  water  passes. 

Crown-sheet — The  sheet  of  steel  at  the  top  of  the  fire- 
box, just  under  the  water  in  the  boiler.  This  crown  sheet 
is  exposed  to  severe  heat,  but  so  long  as  it  is  covered 
with  water,  the  water  will  conduct  the  heat  away,  and 
the  metal  can  never  become  any  hotter  than  the  water  in 
the  boiler.  If,  however,  it  is  not  covered  with  water,  but 
only  by  steam,  it  quickly  becomes  overheated,  since  the 
steam  does  not  conduct  the  heat  away  as  the  water  does. 
It  may  become  so  hot  it  will  soften  and  sag,  but  the  great 
danger  is  that  the  thin  layer  of  water  near  this  over- 
heated crown  sheet  will  be  suddenly  turned  into  a  great 
volume  of  steam  and  cause  an  explosion.  If  some  of  the 
pressure  is  taken  off,  this  overheated  water  may  suddenly 
burst  into  steam  and  cause  an  explosion,  as  the  safety 
valve  blows  off,  for  example  (since  the  safety  valve  re- 
lieves some  of  the  pressure). 

Smoke-box — The  space  at  the  end  of  the  boiler  oppo- 
site to  that  of  the  fire,  in  which  the  smoke  may  accumu- 
late before  passing  up  the  stack  in  the  locomotive  type, 
or  through  the  small  flues  in  the  return  type  of  boiler. 

Steam-dome — A  drum  or  projection  at  the  top  of  the 
boiler  cylinder,  forming  the  highest  point  which  the  steam 
can  reach.  The  steam  is  taken  from  the  boiler  through 
piping  leading  from  the  top  of  this  dome,  since  at  this 
point  it  is  least  likely  to  be  mixed  with  water,  either 
through  foaming  or  shaking  up  of  the  boiler.  Even  un- 
der normal  conditions  the  steam  at  the  top  of  the  dome  is 
drier  than  anywhere  else. 

Mud-drum — A  cylindrical-shaped  receptacle  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  boiler  similar  to  the  steam-dome  at  the  top, 


BOILERS.  19 

but  not  so  deep.  Impurities  in  the  water  accumulate 
here,  and  it  is  of  great  value  on  a  return  flue  boiler.  In 
a  locomotive  boiler  the  mud  accumulates  in  the  water  leg, 
below  the  firebox. 

Man-holes — Are  large  openings  into  the  interior  of  a 
boiler,  through  which  a  man  may  pass  to  clean  out  the 
inside. 

Hand-holes — Are  smaller  holes  at  various  points  in  the 
boiler  into  which  the  nozzle  of  a  hose  may  be  introduced 
for  cleaning  out  the  interior.  All  these  openings  must  be 
securely  covered  with  steam-tight  plates,  called  man-hole 
and  hand-hole  plates. 

A  boiler  jacket — A  non-conducting  covering  of  wood, 
plaster,  hair,  rags,  felt,  paper,  asbestos  or  the  like,  which 
prevents  the  boiler  shell  from  cooling  too  rapidly  through 
radiation  of  heat  from  the  steel.  These  materials  are 
usually  held  in  place  against  the  boiler  by  sheet  iron.  An 
intervening  air-space  between  the  jacket  and  the  boiler 
shell  will  add  to  the  efficiency  of  the  jacket. 

A  steam-jacket — A  space  around  an  engine  cylinder  or 
the  like  which  may  be  filled  with  live  steam  so  as  to  keep 
the  interior  from  cooling  rapidly. 

Ash-pit — The  space  directly  under  the  grates,  where 
the  ashes  accumulate. 

Dead-plates — Solid  sheets  of  steel  on  which  the  fire 
lies  the  same  as  on  the  grates,  but  with  no  openings 
through  to  the  ash-pit.  Dead-plates  are  sometimes  used 
to  prevent  cold  air  passing  through  the  fire  into  the  flues, 
and  are  common  on  straw-burning  boilers.  They  should 
seldom  if  ever  be  used  on  coal  or  wood  firing  boilers. 

Grate  Surface — The  whole  space  occupied  by  the  g^ate- 
bars,  usually  measured  in  square  feet. 

Forced  Draft — A  draft  produced  by  any  means  other 
than  the  natural  tendency  of  the  heated  gases  of  com- 
bustion to  rise.  For  example,  a  draft  caused  by  letting 
steam  escape  into  the  stack. 

Heating  Surface — The  entire  surface  of  the  boiler  ex- 
posed to  the  heat  of  the  fire,  or  the  area  of  steel  or  iron 
sheeting  or  tubing,  on  one  side  of  which  is  water  and 
on  the  other  heated  air  or  gases. 


20 


YOUNG  engineers'   GUIDE. 


Steam-Space — The  cubical  contents  of  the  space  which 
may  be  occupied  by  steam  above  the  water. 

Water-space — The  cubical  contents  of  the  space  occu- 
pied by  water  below  the  steam. 

Diaphragm-plate — A  perforated  plate  used  in  the 
domes  of  locomotive  boilers  to  prevent  water  dashing  into 
the  steam  supply  pipe.  A  dry-pipe  is  a  pipe  with  small 
perforations,  used  for  taking  steam  from  the  steam-space, 
instead  of  from  a  dome  with  diaphragm-plate. 

THE  ATTACHMENTS  OF  A  BOILER.* 

Before  proceeding  to  a  consideration  of  the  care  and 
management  of  a  boiler,  let  us  briefly  indicate  the  chief 
working  attachments  of  a  boiler.  Unless  the  nature  and 
uses  of  these  attachments  are  fully  understood,  it  will  be 
impossible  to  handle  the  boiler  in  a  thoroughly  safe  and 
scientific  fashion,  though  some  engineers 
do  handle  boilers  without  knowing  all 
about  these  attachments.  Their  ignor- 
ance in  many  cases  costs  them  their  lives 
and  the  lives  of  others. 

The  first  duty  of  the  engineer  is  to  see 
that  the  boiler  is  filled  with  water.  This 
he  usually  does  by  looking  at  the  glass 
water-gauge. 

THE  WATER  GAUGE  AND  COCKS. 

There  is  a  cock  at  each  end  of  the  glass 
tube.  When  these  cocks  are  open  the 
water  will  pass  through  the  lower  into 
the  glass  tube,  while  steam  comes 
through  the  other.  The  level  of  the  wa- 
ter in  the  gauge  will  then  be  the  same 
as  the  level  of  the  water  in  the  boiler, 
and  the  water  should  never  fall  out  of 

sight  below  the  lower  end  of  the  glass,  nor  rise  above  the 

upper  end. 

*Unless  otherwise  indicated,  cuts  of  fittings  show  those  manu- 
factured by  the  Lunkenheimer  Co.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 


TWO-ROD   WATER 
GAUGE. 


BOILERS. 


21 


Below  the  lower  gauge  cock  there  is  another  cock  used 
for  draining  the  gauge  and  blowing  it  off  when  there  is 
a  pressure  of  steam  on.  By  occasionally  opening  this 
cock,  allowing  the  heated  water  or  steam  to  blow  through 
it,  the  engineer  may  always  be  sure  that  the  passages 
into  the  water  gauge  are  not  stopped  up  by  any  means. 
By  closing  the  upper  cock  and  opening  the  lower,  the 
passage  into  the  lower  may  be  cleared  by  blowing  off  the 
drain  cock ;  by  closing  the  lower  gauge  cock  and  opening 
the  upper  the  passage  from  the  steam  space  may  be 
cleared  and  tested  in  the  same  way  when  the  drain  cock 
is  opened.  If  the  glass  breaks,  both  upper  and  lower 
gauge  cocks  should  be  closed  instantly. 

In  addition  to  the  glass  water 
gauge,  there  are  the  try-cocks  for 
ascertaining  the  level  of  the  water 
in  the  boiler.  There  should  be  two 
to  four  of  these.  They  open  directly 
ut  of  the  boiler  sheet,  and  by  open- 
ing them  in  turn  it  is  possible  to  tell 
approximately  where  the  water 
stands.  There  should  be  one  cock 
near  the  level  of  the  crown  sheet,  or  slightly  above  it,  an- 
other about  the  level  of  the  lower  gauge  cock,  another 
about  the  middle  of  the  gauge,  another  about  the  level  of 
the  upper  gauge,  and  still  another,  perhaps,  a  little  higher. 
But  one  above  and  one  below  the  water  line  will  be  suffi- 
cient. If  water  stands  above  the  level  of  the  cock,  it 
will  blow  off  white  mist  when  opened ;  if  the  cock  opens 
from  "steam-space,  it  will  blow  off  blue  steam  when 
opened. 

The  try-cocks  should  be 
opened  from  time  to  time 
in  order  to  be  sure  the  wa- 
ter stands  at  the  proper 
level  in  the  boiler,  for  vari- 
ous things  may  interfere 
with  the  working  of  the 
glass  gauge.     Try-cocks  are  often  called  gauge  cocks. 


QAUGB  OR  TKY  COCK. 


TRY  COCK. 


22 


YOUNG  ENGINEERS     GUIDE. 


PRESSURE    GAUGE. 


THE  STEAM  GAUGE. 

The  Steam  gauge  is  a  delicate  instrument  arranged  so 
as  to  indicate  by  a  pointer  the  pounds  of  pressure  which 
the  steam  is  exerting  within  the  boiler.  It  is  extremely 
important,  and  a  defect  in  it  may 
cause  much  damage. 

The  steam  gauge  was  invented 
in  1849  by  Eugene  Bourdon,  of 
France.  He  discovered  that  a  flat 
tube  bent  in  a  simple  curve,  held 
fast  at  one  end,  would  expand  and 
contract  if  made  of  p'/oper  spring 
material,  through  the  pressure  of 
the  water  within  the  tube.  The 
free  end  operates  a  clock-work  that 
moves  the  pointer. 

It  is  important  that  the  steam  gauge  be  attached  to 
the  boiler  by  a  siphon,  or  with  a  knot  in  the  tube,  so  that 

the  steam  may  operate  on 
water  contained  in  the  tube, 
and  the  water  cannot  be- 
come displaced  by  steam, 
since  steam  might  interfere 
with  the  correct  working 
of  the  gauge  by  expanding 
the  gauge  tube  through  its  excessive  heat. 

Steam  gauges  frequently  get  out  of  order,  and  should 
be  tested  occasionally.  This  may  conveniently  be  done 
by  attaching  them  to  a  boiler  which  has  a  correct  gauge 
already  on  it.  If  both  register  alike,  it  is  probable  that 
both  aie  accurate. 

There  are  also  self-testing  steam  gauges.  With  all 
pressure  off,  the  pointer  will  return  to  O.  Then  a  series 
of  weights  are  arranged  which  may 
be  hung  on  the  gauge  and  cause 
the  pointer  to  indicate  correspond- 
ing numbers.  The  chief  source  of 
variation  is  in  the  loosening  of  the 
indicator  needle.     This  shows  itself 

11  1  ,1  -  rx.  A         FRONT  CYLINDER    COCK. 

usually  when  the  pressure  is  off  and 

the  pointer  does  not  return  exactly  to  zero. 


STEAM    GAUGE    SIPHON. 


BOILERS. 


23 


SAFETY  VALVE. 

The  safety  valve  is  a  valve  held  in  place  by  a  weighted 
lever*  or  by  a  spiral  spring  (on  traction  engines)  or  some 

similar  device,  and  is  ad- 
justable by  a  screw  or  the 
like  so  that  it  can  be  set 
to  blow  off  at  a  given  pres- 
sure of  steam,  usually  the 
rated  pressure  of  the  boil- 
er, which  on   traction  en- 


SECTIONAL  VIEW  OP  KUNKLE 
POP  VALVE. 


SAFETY    VALVE. 


gines  is  from  no  to  130  pounds.  The  valve  is  suppHed 
with  a  handle  by  which  it  can  be  opened,  and  it  should 
be  opened  occasionally  to  make  sure  it  is  working  all 
right.  When  it  blows  off  the  steam  gauge  should  be 
noted  to  see  that  it  agrees  with  the  pressure  for  which 
the  safety  valve  was  set.  If  they  do  not  agree,  something 
is  wrongj  either  the  safety  valve  does  not  work  freely, 
or  the  steam  gauge  does  not  register  accurately. 

The  cut  shows  the  Kunkle  safety  valve.  To  set  it,  un- 
screw the  jam  nut  and  apply  the  key  to  the  pressure 
screw.  For  more  pressure,  screw  down;  for  less,  un- 
screw.    After  having  the  desired  pressure,  screw  the  jam 

*This  kind  of  safety  valve  is  nov^  being  entirely  discarded  as 
much  more  dangerous  than  the  spring  or  pop  valve, 


.24 


YOUNG  engineers'    GUIDE. 


nut  down  tight  on  the  pressure  screw.  To  regulate  the 
opening  and  closing  of  the  valve,  take  the  pointed  end  of 
a  file  and  apply  it  to  the  teeth  of  the  regulator.  If  valve 
closes  with  too  much  boiler  pressure,  move  the  regulator 
to  the  left.  If  with  too  little,  move  the  regulator  to  the 
right. 

This   can  be   done   when   the 

valve  is  at  the  point  of  blowing 

ofif. 


PHANTOM  VIEW  OF  MARSH  INDEPENDENT  STEAM    PUMP. 


Other  types  of  valves  are  managed  in  a  similar  way, 
and  exact  directions  will  always  be  furnished  by  the  man- 
ufacturers. 

FILLING  THE  BOILER  WITH  WATER. 

There  are  three  ways  in  which  a  boiler  is  commonly 
filled  with  water. 

First,  before  starting  a  boiler  it  must  be  filled  with 
water  by  hand,  or  with  a  hand  force-pump.  There  is 
usually  a  filler  plug,  which  must  be  taken  out,  and  a  fun- 
nel can  be  attached  in  its  place.  Open  one  of  the  gauge 
cocks  to  let  out  the  air  as  the  water  goes  in. 

When  the  boiler  has  a  sufficient  amount  of  water,  as 
may  be  seen  by  the  glass  water  gauge,  replace  the  filler 


BOILERS. 


25 


plug-.  After  steam  is  up  the  boiler  should  be  supplied 
with  water  by  a  pump  or  injector. 

THE   BOILER   PUMP. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  pumps  commonly  used  on 
traction  engines,  the  Independent  pump,  and  the  Cross- 
head  pump. 

The  Independent  pump  is  virtually  an  independent 
engine  with  pump  attached.  There  are  two  cylinders, 
One  receiving  steam  and  conveying  force  to  the  piston ; 
the  other  a  water  cylinder,  in  which  a  plunger  works, 
drawing  the  water  into  itself  by  suction  and  forcing  it 
out  through  the  'connec- 
tion pipe  into  the  boiler  by 
force  of  steam  pressure  in 
the  steam   cylinder. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  all 
suction  pumps  receive  their 
water  by  reason  of  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere 
on  the  surface  of  the  water 
in  the  supply  tank  or  well. 

is  about  15  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  and  is  sufficient  to 
support  a  column  of  water  28  to  33  feet  high,  33  feet 
being  the  height  of  a  column  of  water  which  the  atmos- 
phere will  support  theoretically  at  about  sea  level.  At 
greater  altitudes  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  de- 
creases. Pumps  do  not  work  very  well  when  drawing 
water  from  a  depth  over  20  or  22  feet. 

Water  can  be  forced  to  almost  any  height  by  pressure 
of  steam  on  the  plunger,  and  it  is  taken  from  deep  wells 

by  deep  well  pumps,  which 
suck  the  water  20  to  25 
feet,  and  force  it  the  rest 
of  the  way  by  pressure  on 
a  plunger. 

The  amount  of  water 
pumped  is  regulated  by  a 
cock  or  globe  valve  in  the 
suction  pipe. 


STRAIGHT   GLOBE    VALVE. 


This  atmospheric  pressure 


ANGLB   OLOBB  VALVB. 


26 


YOUNG  ENGINEERS     GUIDE. 


VALVE  WITH  INTERNAL 
SCREW. 


A  Cross-head  boiler  pump  is  a  pump  attached  to  the 
cross-head  of  an  engine.  The  force  of  the  engine  piston 
is  transmitted  to  the  plunger  of  the 
pump. 

The  pump  portion  works  exactly 
the  same,  whether  of  the  independ- 
ent or  cross-head  kind. 

The  cut  represents  an  independ- 
ent pump  that  uses  the  exhaust 
steam  to  heat  the  water  as  it  is 
pumped  (Marsh  pump). 

Every  boiler  feed-pump  must 
have  at  least  two  check  valves. 

A  check  valve  is  a  small  swing- 
ing gate  valve  (usually)  contained 
in  a  pipe,  and  so  arranged  that 
when  water  is  flowing  in  one  di- 
rection the  valve  will  automatically 
open  to  let  the  water  pass,  while 
if  water  should  be  forced  in  the 
other  direction,  the  valve  will  automatically  close  tight 
and  prevent  the  water  from  passing. 

There  is  one  check  valve  in  the  supply  pipe  which  con- 
ducts the  water  from  the  tank  or  well  to  the  pump  cylin- 
der. When  the  plunger  is  drawn 
back  or  raised,  a  vacuum  is  created  in 
the  pump  cylinder  and  the  outside  at- 
mospheric pressure  forces  water 
through  the  supply  pipe  into  the  cyl- 
inder, and  the  check  valve  opens  to 
let  it  pass.  When  the  plunger  returns, 
the  check  valve  closes,  and  the  water 
is  forced  into  the  feed-pipe  to  the 
boiler. 

There  are  usually  two  check  valves  between  the  pump 
cylinder  and  the  boiler,  both  swinging  away  from  the 
pump  or  toward  the  boiler.  In  order  that  the  water  may 
flow  steadily  into  the  boiler  there  is  an  air  chamber,  which 
may  be  partly  filled  with  water  at  each  stroke  of  the; 


SECTIONAL    VIEW     OF 
SWING    CHECK    VALVE. 


BOILERS. 


27 


plunger.  As  the  water  comes  in,  the  air  must  be  com- 
pressed, and  as  it  expands  it  forces  the  water  through  the 
feed  pipe  into  the  boiler  in  a  steady  stream.    There  is  one 


SECTIONAL   VIEW   OF  CASE   HEATER. 

check  valve  between  the  pump  cylinder  and  the  air  cham- 
ber, to  prevent  the  water  from  coming  back  into  the  cyl- 
inder, and  another  between  the  air  chamber  and  the 
boiler,  to  prevent  the  steam  pressure  forcing  itself  or  the 
sTEAtvt  water    from     the    boiler    or    water 

heater  back  into  the  air  chamber. 


SECTIONAL  VIEW   OF   PENBERTHT 
INJECTOR. 


U.    S.    AUTOMATIC    INJECTOR. 

(American  Injector  Co.) 


All  three  of  these  check  valves  must  work  easily  and 
fit  tight  if  the  pump,  is  to  be  serviceable.  They  usually 
close  with  rubber  facings  which  in  time  will  get  worn, 


28 


YOUNG  ENGINEERS     GUIDE. 


and  dirt  is  liable  to  work  into  the  hinge  and  otherwise 
prevent  tight  and  easy  closing.  They  can  always  be 
opened  for  inspection,  and  new  ones  can  be  put  in  when 
the  old  are  too  much  worn. 

Only  cold  water  can  be  pumped  successfully,  as  steam 
from  hot  water  will  expand,  and  so  prevent  a  vacuum 
being  formed.  Thus  no  suction  will  take  place  to  draw 
the  water  from  the  supply  source. 

There  should  always  be  a  globe  valve  or  cock  in  the 
feed  pipe  near  the  boiler  to  make  it  possible  to  cut  out  the 

check  valves  when  the 
boiler  is  under  pressure. 
It  is  nevef  to  he  closed 
except  when  required 
for  this  purpose. 

Before  passing  into 
the  boiler  the  water 
from  the  pump  goes 
through  the  heater.  This 
is  a  small  cylinder,  with 
a  coil  of  pipe  inside. 
The  feed  pipe  from  the 
pump  is  connected  with 
one  end  of  this  inner 
coil  of  pipe,  while  the 
other  end  of  the  coil 
leads  into  the  boiler  it- 
self. The  exhaust 
steam  from  the  engine 
cylinder  is  admitted  into 
the  cylinder  and  passes 
around  the  coil  of  pipe,  afterwards  coming  out  of  the 
smoke  stack  to  help  increase  the  draft.  As  the  feed 
.water  passes  through  this  heater  it  becomes  heated  nearly 
to  boiling  before  it  enters  the  boiler,  and  has  ho 
tendency  to  cool  the  boiler  off.  Heating  the  feed  water 
results  in  an  economy  of  about  lo  per  cent. 

The  Injector  is  another  means  of  forcing  water  from 
a  supply  tank  or  well  into  the  boiler,  and  at  the  same  time 
heating  it,  by  use  of  steam  from  the  boiler.    It  is  a  neces- 


AUTOMATIC    INJECTOR. 


BOILERS.  ^  29 

sity  when  a  cross-head  pump  is  used,  since  such  a  pump 
will  not  work  when  the  engine  is  shut  down.  It  is  use- 
ful in  any  case  to  heat  the  water  before  it  goes  into  the 
boiler  when  the  engine  is  not  working  and  there  is  no 
exhaust  steam  for  the  heater. 

There  are  various  types  of  injectors,  but  they  all  work 
on  practically  the  same  principle.  The  steam  from  the 
boiler  is  led  through  a  tapering  nozzle  to  a  small  cham- 
ber into  which  there  is  an  opening  from  a  water  supply 
pipe.  This  steam  nozzle  throws  out  its  spray  with  great 
force  and  creates  a  partial  vacuum  in  the  chamber,  caus- 
ing the  water  to  flow  in.  As  the  pressure  of  the  steam 
has  been  reduced  when  it  passes  into  the  injector,  it  can- 
not, of  course,  force  its  way  back  into  the  boiler  at  first, 
and  finds  an  outlet  at  the  overflow.  When  the  water 
comes  in,  however,  the  steam  jet  strikes  the  water  and  is 
condensed  by  it.  At  the  same  time  it  carries  the  water 
and  the  condensed  steam  along  toward  the  boiler  with 
such  force  that  the  back  pressure  of  the  boiler  is  over- 
come and  a  stream  of  heated  water  is  passed  into  it.  In 
order  that  the  injector  may  work,  its  parts  must  be  nicely 
adjusted,  and  with  varying  steam  pressures  it  takes  some 
ingenuity  to  get  it  started.  Usually  the, full  steam  pres- 
sure is  turned  on  and  the  cock  admitting  the  water  sup- 
ply is  opened  a  varying  amount  according  to  the  pressure. 

First  the  valve  between  the  check 
valve  and  the  boiler  should  be  opened, 
so  that  the  feed  water  may  enter  free- 
ly ;  then  open  wide  the  valve  next 
the  steam  dome,  and  any  other 
valve  between  the  steam  supply  pipe 
and  the  injector;  lastly  open  the 
water  supply  valve.  If  water  ap- 
pears at  the  overflow,  close  the  supply 
valve  and  open  it  again,  giving  it  just 
the  proper  amount  of  turn.  The  in- 
jector is  regulated  by  the  amount  of 
water  admitted. 

In  setting  up  an  injector  of  any  type, 
the  following  rules  should  be  observed :      plain  whistle. 


30  YOUNG  engineers'  guide. 

All  connecting  pipes  as  straight  and  short  as  possible. 

The  internal  diameter  of  all  connecting  pipes  should  be 
the  same  or  greater  than  the  diameter  of  the  hole  in  the 
corresponding  part  of  the  injector. 

When  there  is  dirt  or  particles  of  wood  or  other  ma- 
terial in  the  source  of  water  supply,  the  end  of  the 
water  supply  pipe  should  be  provided  with  a  strainer. 
Indeed,  invariably  a  strainer  should  be  used.  The  holes 
in  this  strainer  must  be  as  small  as  the  smallest  opening 
in  the  delivery  tube,  and  the  total  area  of  the  openings 
in  the  strainer  must  be  much  greater  than  the  area  of  the 
water  supply   (cross-section). 

The  steam  should  be  taken  from  the  highest  part  of 
the  dome,  tO'  avoid  carrying  any  water  from  the  boiler 
over  with  it.  Wet  steam  cuts  and  grooves  the  steam 
nozzle.  The  steam  should  not  be  taken  from  the  pipe 
leading  to  the  engine  unless  the  pipe  is  quite  large. 

Before  using  new  injectors,  after  they  are  fitted  to 
the  boiler  it  is  advisable  to  disconnect  them  and  clean 
them  out  well  by  letting  steam  blow  through  them  or 
forcing  water  through.  This  will  prevent  lead  or  loose 
scale  getting  into  the  injector  when  in  use. 

Set  the  injector  as  low  as  possible,  as  it  works  best 
with  smallest  possible  lift. 

Ejectors  and  jet  pumps  are  used  for  lifting  and  forc- 
ing water  by  steam  pressure,  and  are  employed  in  fill- 
ing tanks,  etc. 

BLAST  AND  BLOW-OFF    DEVICES. 

In  traction  engines  there  is  small  pipe  with  a  valve, 
leading  into  the  smoke  stack  from  the  boiler.  When  the 
valve  is  opened,  the  steam  allowed  to  blow  ofif  into  the 
smoke  stack  will  create  a  vacuum  and  so  increase  the 
draft.  Blast  or  blow  pipes  are  used  only  in  starting  the 
fire,  and  are  of 'little  value  before  the  steam  pressure 
reaches  15  pounds  or  so. 

The  exhaust  nozzle  from  the  engine  cylinder  also  leads 
into  the  smoke  stack,  and  when  the  engine  is  running  the 
exhaust  steam  is  sufficient  to  keep  up  the  draft  without 
using  the  blower. 


BOILERS. 


31 


)XA.Mo.\D 
SPARK    ARRESTEU. 


Blow-off  cocks  are  used  for  blowing 
sediment  out  of  the  bottom  of  a  boiler, 
or  blowing  scum  off  the  top  of  the 
water  to  prevent  foaming.  A  boiler 
should  never  be  blown  out  at  high 
pressure,  as  there  is  great  danger  of 
injuring  it.  Better  let  the  boiler  cool 
3ff  somewhat  before  blowing  off. 


SPARK    ARRESTER. 

Traction  engines  are  supplied  as  a 
usual  thing  with  spark  arresters  if 
they  burn  wood  or  straw.  Coal  sparks 
are  heavy  and  have  little  life,  and  with 
some  engines  no  spark  arrester  is 
needed.  But  there  is  great  danger  of 
setting  a  fire  if  an  engine  is  run  with  wood  or  straw  with- 
out the  spark  arrester. 

Spark  arresters  are  of  different  types.  The  most  usual 
form  is  a  large  screen  dome  placed  over  the  top  of  the 
stack.  This  screen  must  be  kept  well  cleaned  by  brushing, 
or  the  draft  of  the  engine  will  be  impaired  by  it. 

In  another  form  of  spark  arrester,  the  smoke  is  made 
to  pass  through  water,  which  effectually  kills  every  pos- 
sible spark. 

The  Diamond  Spark  Arrester  does  not  interfere  with 
the  draft  and  is  so  consltructed  that  all  sparks  are  carried 
by  a  counter  current  through  a  tube  into  a  pail  where 
water  is  kept.  The  inverted  cone,  as  shown  in  cut,  is 
made  of  steel  wire  cloth,  which  permits  smoke  and  gas 
to  escape,  but  no  sparks.  There  is  no  possible  chance  to 
set  fire  to  anything  by  sparks.  It  is  adapted  to  any  steam 
engine  that  exhausts  into  the  smoke  stack. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE  SIMPLE  ENGINE. 

The  engine  is  the  part  of  a  power  plant  which  converts 
steam  pressure  into  power  in  such  form  that  it  can  do 
work.  Properly  speaking,  the  engine  has  nothing  to 
do  with  generating  steam.  That  is  done  exclusively  in 
the  boiler,  which  has  already  been  described. 

The  steam   engine  was  invented  by  James  Watt,  in 


VIEW  OF   SIMPLE  CYLINDER. 
(J.  I.  Case  Threshing  Machine  Co.) 

England,  between  1765  and  1790,  and  he  understood  all 
the  essential  parts  of  the  engine  as  now  built.     It  was 
improved,   however,    by    Seguin,    Ericsson,    Stephenson, 
Fulton,  and  many  others. 
Let  us  first  consider: 

32 


THE  SIMPLE  ENGINE.  33 


THE  STEAM   CYLINDER,   ITS  PARTS  AND  CONNECTIONS. 

The  cylinder  proper  is  constructed  of  a  single  piece 
of  cast  iron  bored  out  smooth. 

The  cylinder  heads  are  the  flat  discs  or  caps  bolted  to 
the  ends  of  the  cylinder  itself.  Sometimes  one  cylinder 
head  is  cast  in  the  same  piece  with  the  engine  frame. 

The  piston  is  a  circular  disc  working  back  and  forth 
in  the  cylinder.  It  is  usually  a  hollow  casting,  and  to 
make  it  fit  the  cylinder  steam  tight,  it  is  supplied  on  its 
circumference  with  piston  rings.  These  are  made  of 
slightly  larger  diameter  than  the  piston,  and  serve  as 
springs  against  the  sides  of  the  cylinder.     The  follower 


CONNECTING    ROD   AND   CROSS-HEAD. 
(J.   I.  Case  Threshing  Machine  Co.) 

plate  and  bolts  cover  the  piston  rings  on  the  piston  head 
and  hold  them  in  place. 

The  piston  rod  is  of  wrought  iron  or  steel,  and  is  fitted 
firmly  and  rigidly  into  the  piston  at  one  end.  It  runs 
from  the  piston  through  one  head  of  the  cylinder,  passing 
through  a  steam-'tight  ''stuffing  box."  One  end  of  the 
piston  rod  is  attached  to  the  cross-head. 

The  cross-head  works  between  guides,  and  has  shoes 
above  and  below.  It  is  practically  a  joint,  necessary  in 
converting  straight  back  and  forth  motion  into  rotary. 
The  cross-head  itself  works  straight  back  and  forth,  just 
as  the  piston  does,  which  is  fastened  firmly  to  one  end. 
At  the  other  end  is  attached  the  connecting  rod,  which 


54 


YOUNG  ENGINEERS     GUIDE. 


works  on  a  bearing  in  the  cross-head,  called  the  wrist  pin, 
or  cross-head  pin. 

The  connecting  rod  is  wrought  iron  or  steel,  working 
at  one  end  on  the  bearing  known  as  the  wrist  pin,  and  on 
the  other  on  a  bearing  called  the  crank  pin. 

The  crank  is  a  short  lever  which  transmits  the  power 
from  the  connecting  rod  to  the  crank  shaft.  It  may  also 
be  a  disc,  called  the  crank  disc. 

Let  us  now  return  to  the  steam  cylinder  itself. 

The  steam  leaves  the  boiler  through  a  pipe  leading 
from  the  top  of  the  steam  dome,  and  is  let  on  or  cut  off 
by  the  throttle  valve,  which  is  usually  opened  and  closed 
by  some  sort  of  lever  handle.    It  passes  on  to  the 


CROSS-HEAD. 
(J.   I.   Case  Threshing  Machine   Co.) 

Steam-chest,  usually  a  part  of  the  same  casting  as  the 
cylinder.  It  has  a  cover  called  the  steam-chest  cover, 
which  is  securely  bolted  in  place. 

The  steam  valve,  usually  spoken  of  simply  as  the  valve, 
serves  to  admit  the  steam  alternately  to  each  end  of  the 
cylinder  in  such  a  manner  that  it  works  the  piston  back 
and  forth. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  valves,  the  simplest  (shown 
in  the  diagram)  being  the  D-valve.  It  slides  back  and 
forth  on  the  bottom  of  the  steam-chest,  which  is  called  the 
valve  seat,  and  alternately  opens  and  closes  the  two 
steam  ports,  which  are  long,  narrow  passages  through 
which  the  steam  enters  the  cylinder,  first  through  one 


THE  SIMPLE  ENGINE.  35 

port  to  one  end,  then  through  the  other  port  to  the  other 
end.  The  exhaust  steam  also  passes  out  at  these  same 
ports. 

The  exhaust  chamber  in  the  type  of  engine  now  under 
consideration  is  an  opening  on  the  lower  side  of  the 
valve,  and  is  always  open  into  the  exhaust  port,  which 
connects  with  the  exhaust  pipe,  which  finally  discharges 
itself  through  the  exhaust  nozdc  into  the  smoke  stack 
of  a  locomotive  or  traction  engine,  or  in  other  types  of 
engines,  into  the  eondenser. 

The  valve  is  worked  by  the  valve  stem,  which  works 
through  the  valve  stem  stiiffijig-box. 

Of  course  the  piston  does  not  work  quite  the  full  length 
of  the  cylinder,  else  it  would  pound  against  the  cylinder 
heads. 

The  clearance  is  the  distance  between  the  cylinder  head 
at  either  end  and  the  piston  when  the  piston  has  reached 
the  limit  of  its  stroke  in  that  direction. 

In  most  engines  the  valve  is  so  'set  that  it  opens  a  trifle 
just  before  the  piston  reaches  the  limit  of  its  movement 
in  either  direction,  thus  letting  some  steam  in  before  the 
piston  is  ready  to^  move  back.  This  opening,  which  usu- 
ally amounts  to  1-32  to  3-16  of  an  inch,  is  called  the 
lead.  The  steam  thus  let  in  before  the  piston  reaches  the 
limit  of  its  stroke  forms  cushion,  and  helps  the  piston  to 
reverse  its  motion  without  any  jar,  in  an  easy  and  silent 
manner.  Of  course  the  cushion  must  be  as  slight  as  pos- 
sible and  serve  its  purpose,  else  it  will  tend  to  stop  the 
engine,  and  result  in  loss  of  energy.  Some  engines  have 
no  lead. 

Setting  a  valve  is  adjusting  it  on  its  seat  so  that  the 
lead  will  be  equal  at  both  ends  and  sufficient  for  the  needs 
of  the  engine.  By  shortening  the  movement  of  the  valve 
back  and  forth,  the  lead  can  be  increased  or  diminished. 
This  is  usually  effected  by  changing  the  eccentric  or 
valve  gear. 

The  lap  of  a  slide  valve  is  the  distance  it  extends  over 
the  edges  of  the  ports  when  it  is  at  the  middle  oi  its 
travel. 

Lap  on  the  steam  side  is  called  outside  lap;  lap  on  the 
exhaust  side  is  called  inside  lap.     The  object  of  lap  is 


36  YOUNG  engineers'   GUIDE. 

to  secure  the  benefit  of  working-  steam  expansively.  Hav- 
ing lap,  the  valve  closes  one  stream  port  before  the  other 
is  opened,  and  before  the  piston  has  reached  the  end  of 
its  stroke ;  also  of  course  before  the  exhaust  is  opened. 
Thus  for  a  short  time  the  steam  that  has  been  let  into  the 
cylinder  to  drive  the  piston  is  shut  up  with  neither  inlet 
nor  outlet,  and  it  drives  the  piston  by  its  own  expansive 
force.  When  it  passes  out  at  the  exhaust  it  has  a  con- 
siderably reduced  pressure,  and  less  of  its  force  is  wasted. 
Let  us  now  consider  the 

VALVE  GEAR. 

The  mechanism  by  which  the  valve  is  opened  and 
closed  is  somewhat  complicated,  as  various  things  are  ac- 
complished by  it  besides  simply  opening  and  closing  the 
valve.  If  an  engine  has  a  reverse  lever,  it  works  through 
the  valve  gear;  and  the  governor  which  regulates  the 
speed  of  the  engine  may  also  operate  through  the  valve 
gear.     It  is  therefore  very  important. 

The  simplest  valve  gear  depends  for  its  action  on  a 
fixed  eccentric. 

An  eccentric  consists  O'f  a  central  disc  called  the 
sheave,  keyed  to  the  main  shaft  at  a  point  to  one  side  of 
its  true  center,  and  a  grooved  ring  or  strap  surrounding 
it  and  sliding  loosely  around  it.  The  strap  is  usually 
made  of  brass  or  some  anti-friction  metal.  It  is  in  two 
parts,  which  are  bolted  together  so  that  they  can  be  tight- 
ened up  as  the  strap  wears. 

Tlie  eccentric  rod  is  either  bolted  to  the  strap  or  forms 
a  single  piece  with  it,  and  this  rod  transmits  its  motion  to 
the  valve. 

It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  the  eccentric  is  nothing 
more  than  a  sort  of  disc  crank,  which,  however,  does  not 
need  to  be  attached  to  the  end  of  a  shaft  in  the  manner 
of  an  ordinary  crank. 

The  distance  between  the  center  of  the  eccentric  sheave 
and  the  center  of  the  shaft  is  called  the  throw  of  the  ec- 
centric or  the  eccentricity. 

The  eccentric  usually  conveys  its  force  through  a  con- 
necting rod  to  the  valve  stem,  which  moves  the  valve. 


THE  SIMPLE  ENGINE. 


37 


The  first  modification  of  the  simple  eccentric  valve 
gear  is 

THE   REVERSING   GEAR. 

It  is  very  desirable  to  control  the  movement  of  the 
steam  valve,  so  that  if  desired  the  engine  may  be  run  in 
the  opposite  direction ;  or  the  steam  force  may  be  brought 
to  bear  to  stop  the  engine  quickly;  or  the  travel  of  the 
valve  regulated  so  that  it  will  let  into  the  cylinder  only 
ns  much  steam  as  is  needed  to  run  the  engine  when  the 
load  is  light  and  the  steam  pressure  in  the  boiler  high. 

There  is  a  great  variety  of  reversing  gears;  but  we 
will  consider  one  of  the  commonest  and  simplest  first. 


RUBER   SINGLE   ECCENTRIC   REVERSE. 

If  the  eccentric  sheave  could  be  slipped  around  on  the 
shaft  to  a  position  opposite  to  that  in  which  it  was  keyed 
to  shaft  in  its  ordinary  motion,  the  motion  of  the  valve 
would  be  reversed,  and  it  would  let  steam  in  front  of  the 
advancing  end  of  the  piston,  which  would  check  its 
movement,  and  start  it  in  the  opposite  direction. 

The  link  gear,  invented  by  Stephenson,  accomplishes 
this  in  a  natural  and  easy  manner.  There  are  two  eccen- 
trics placed  ju6t  opposite  to  each  other  on  the  crank 
shaft,  their  connecting  reds  terminating  in  what  is  called 
a  link,  through 'which  motion  is  communicated  to  the  valve 
stem.  The  link  is  a  curved  slide,  one  eccentric  being  con- 
nected to  one  end,  the  other  eccentric  to  the  other  end, 


38 


YOUNG  ENGINEERS     GUIDE. 


and  the  link-block,  through  which  motion  is  conveyed  to 
the  valve,  shdes  freely  from  one  end  to  the  other.  Lower 
the  link  so  that  the  block  is  opposite  the  end  of  the  first 
rod,  and  the  valve  will  be  moved  by  the  corresponding 
eccentric;  raise  the 
link,  so  that  the 
block  is  opposite 
the  end  of  the  oth- 
er rod,  and  the 
valve  will  be 
moved  by  the  oth- 
er eccentric.  In  the 
middle  there  would 


be  a  dead  center,  and  if  the  block  stopped  here,  the 
valve  would  not  move  at  all.  At  any  intermediate  point, 
the  travel  of  the  valve  would  be  correspondingly  short- 
ened. 


THE  SIMPLE  ENGINE. 


39 


Such  is  the  theoretical  effect  of  a  perfect  Hnk ;  but  the 
dead  center  is  not  absolute,  and  the  motion  of  the  link  is 
varied  by  the  point  at  which  the  rod  is  attached  which 
lifts  and  lowers  it,  and  also  by  the  length  of  this  rod. 
In  full  gear  the  block 
is  not  allowed  to  come 
quite  to  the  end  of  the 
link,  and  this  surplus 
distance  is  called  the 
clearance.  The  r  ad  ins 
of  a  link  is  the  dis- 
tance from  the  center 
of  the  driving  shaft 
to  the  center  of  the 
link,  and  the  curve  of 
the  link  is  that  of  a 
circle  with  that  radius. 
The  length  of  the 
radius  may  vary  con-  h 
siderably,  but  the  g 
point  of  suspension  is  :^ 
important.  If  a  link  § 
is  suspended  by  its  5 
center,  it  will  cer-  2 
tainly  cut  off  steam  | 
sooner  in  the  front  S 
stroke  than  in  the  ^ 
back.  Usually  it  is  p 
suspended  from  that  ^ 
point  which  is  most  o 
used  in  running  the  g- 
engine.  ^ 

The  Woolf  revers- 
ing gear  employs  but 
one  eccentric,  to  the 
strap  of  which  is  cast 
an  arm  having  a  block 
pivoted  at  its  end. 
This  block  slides  in  a 
pivoted  guide,  the  an- 
^le  of  which  is  con- 


40 


YOUNG  ENGINEERS     GUIDE. 


trolled  by  the  reverse  lever.  To  the  eccentric  arm  is  at- 
tached the  eccentric  rod,  which  transmits  the  motion  to 
the  valve  rod  through  a  rocker  arm  on  simple  engines 
and  through  a  slide,  as  shown  in  cut,  on  compound  en- 
gines. 

The  Meyer  valve  gear  does  not  actually  reverse  an 
engine,  but  controls  the  admission  of  steam  by  means 
of  an  additional  valve  riding  on  the  back  of  the  main 
valve  and  controlling  the  cut-off.  The  main  valve  is  like 
an  ordinary  D-valve,  except  that  the  steam  is  not  ad- 
mitted around  the  ends,  but  through  ports  running 
through  the  valve^  these  ports  being  partially  opened  or 

closed  by  the  motion  of 
the  riding  valve,  which  is 
controlled  by  a  separate 
eccentric.  If  this  riding 
valve  is  connected  with  a 
governor,  it  will  regulate 
the  speed  of  an  engine; 
and  by  the  addition  of  a 
link  the  gear  may  be 
made  reversible.  The 
chief  objection  to  it  is 
the  excessive  friction 
of  the  valves  on  their 
seats. 

GOVERNORS. 


SECTIONAL    VIEW    SHOWING    VALVE 
OF    WATEKS    GOVERNOR. 


A  governor  is  a  mech- 
anism by  which  the  sup- 
ply of  steam  to  the  cylin- 
der is  regulated  by  revolving  balls,  or  the  like,  which 
runs  faster  or  slower  as  the  speed  of  the  engine  increases 
or  diminishes.  Thus  the  speed  of  an  engine  is  regulated 
to  varying  loads  and  conditions. 

The  simplest  type  of  governor,  and  the  one  commonly 
used  on  traction  engines,  is  that  which  is  only  a  modifica- 
tion of  the  one  invented  by  Watt.  Two  balls  revolve 
around  a  spindle  in  such  a  way  as  to  rise  when  the  speed 
of  the  engine  is  high,  and  fall  when  it  is  low,  and  in  rising 


THE  SIMPLE  ENGIKE. 


41 


and  falling  they  open  and  close  a  valve  similar  to  the 
throttle  valve.  The  amount  that  the  governor  valve  is 
opened  or  closed  by  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  governor 
balls  is  usually  regulated  by  a  thumb  screw  at  the  top  or 
side,  or  by  what  is  called  a  handle  nut,  which  is  usually 
held  firm  by  a  check  nut  directly  over  it,  which  should  be 
screwed  firm  against  the  handle  nut. 
Motion  is  conveyed  to  the  governor 
balls  by  a  belt  and  a  band  wheel  work- 
ing on  a  mechanism  of  metred  cogs. 

There  is  considerable  friction  about 
a  governor  of  this  type  and  much  en- 
ergy is  wasted  in  keeping  it  going. 
The  valve  stem  or  spindle  passes 
through  a  steam-tight  stuffing  box, 
where  it  is  liable  to  stick  if  the  pack- 
ing is  too  tight;  and  if  this  stuffing 
box  leaks  steam,  there  will  be  immedi- 
ate loss  of  power. 

Such  a  governor  as  has  just  been 
described  is  called  a  throttle  valve 
governor.  On  high  grade  engines  the 
difficulties  inherent  in  this  type  of 
governor  are  overcome  by  making  the 
governor  control,  not  a  valve  in  the 
steam  supply  pipe,  but  the  admission 
of  steam  to  the  steam  cylinder  through  the  steam  valve 
and  its  gear.  Such  engines  are  described  as  having  an 
''automatic  cut-off."  Sometimes  the  governor  is  at- 
tached to  the  link,  sometimes  to  a  separate  valve,  as  in 
the  Meyer  gear  already  described.  Usually  the  governor 
is  attached  to  the  fly-wheel,  and  consequently  governors 
of  this  type  are  called  fly-wheel  governors.  An  automatic 
cut-off  governor  is  from  15  per  cent  to  20  per  cent  more 
effective  than  a  throttle  valve  governor. 

CRANK,  SHAFT  AND  JOURNALS. 

We  have  already  seen  how  the  piston  conveys  its  power 
through  the  piston  rod,  the  cross-head,  and  the  con- 
necting rod,  to  the  crank  pin  and  crank,  and  hence  to  the 
shaft. 


riCKERINO   HORIZONTAL 
GOVERNOR. 


42 


YOUNG  ENGINEERS     GUIDE. 


The  key,  gib,  and  strap  are  the  effective  means  by 
which  the  connecting  rod  is  attached,  first  to  the  wrist  pin 
in  the  cross-head,  and  secondly  to  the  crank  pin  on  the 
crank. 

The  strap  is  usually  made  of  two  or  three  pieces  of 
wrought  iron  or  steel  bolted  together  so  as  to  hold  the 
brasses,  which  are  in  two  parts  and  loosely  surround  the 
pin.  The  brasses  do  not  quite  meet,  and  as  they  wear 
may  be  tightened  up.  This  is  effected  by  the  gib,  back 
of  which  is  the  key,  which  is  commonly  a  wedge  which 
may  be  driven  in,  or  a  screw,  which  presses  on  the  back 
of  the  gib,  which  in  turn  forces  together  the  brasses ;  and 


CONNECTING   ROD  AND  BOXES. 

(A.  W.  Stevens  Co.) 

thus  the  length  of  the  piston  gear  is  kept  uniform  in 
spite  of  the  wear,  becoming  neither  shorter  nor  longer. 
When  the  brasses  are  so  worn  that  they  have  been  forced 
together,  they  must  be  taken  out  and  filed  equally  on 
all  four  of  the  meeting  ends,  and  shims,  or  thin  pieces  of 
sheet  iron  or  the  like  placed  back  of  them  to  equalize  the 
wear,  and  prevent  the  piston  gear  from  being  shortened 
or  otherwise  altered. 

The  crank  is  a  simple  lever  attached  to  the  shaft  by 
which  the  shaft  is  rotated.  There  are  two  types  of  crank 
in  common  use,  the  side  crank,  which  works  by  what  is 
virtually  a  bend  in  the  shaft.       There  is  also  wh^t  is 


THE  SIMPLE  ENGINE.  43 

called  the  disc  crank,  a  variation  of  the  side  crank,  in 
which  the  power  is  applied  to  the  circumference  of  a  disc 
instead  of  to  the  end  of  a  lever  arm. 

The  boss  of  a  crank  is  that  part  which  surrounds  the 
shaft  and  butts  against  the  main  bearing-,  and  is  usually 
about  twice  the  diameter  of  the  crank  shaft  journal.  The 
-cveb  of  the  crank  is  the  portion  between  the  shaft  and  the 
pin. 

To  secure  noiseless  running,  the  crank  pin  should  be 
turned  with  great  exactness,  and  should  be  set  exactly 
parallel  with  the  direction  of  the  shaft.  When  the 
pressure  on  the  pin  or  any  bearing  is  over  800  pounds  per 
square  inch,  oil  is  no  longer  able  to  lubricate  it  properly. 
Hence  the  bearing  surface  should  always  be  large  enough 
to  prevent  a  greater  pressure  than  800  pounds  to  the 
square  inch.  To  secure  the  proper  proportions  the  crank 
pin  should  have  a  diameter  of  one-fourth  the  bore  of  the 
cyfinder,  and  its  length  should  be  one-third  that  of  the 
cylinder. 

The  shaft  is  made  of  wrought  iron  or  steel,  and  must 
not  only  be  able  to  withstand  the  twisting  motion  O'f  the 
crank,  but  the  bending  force  of  the  engine  stroke.  To 
prevent  bending,  the  shaft  should  have  a  bearing  as  near 
the  crank  as  possible. 

The  journals  are  those  portions  of  the  shaft  which  work 
in  bearings.  The  main  bearings  are  also  called  pedestals, 
pillozi}  blocks,  and  journal  boxes.  They  usually  consist 
of  boxes  made  of  brass  or  some  other  anti-friction  mate- 
rial carried  in  iron  pedestals.  The  pillow  blocks  are 
usually  adjustable. 

THE  FLY-WHEEL. 

This  is  a  heavy  wheel  attached  to  the  shaft.  Its  object 
is  to  regulate  the  variable  action  of  the  piston,  and  to 
make  the  motion  uniform  even  when  the  load  is  variable. 
By  its  inertia  it  stores  energy,  which  would  keep  the  en- 
gine running  for  some  time  after  the  piston  ceased  to 
apply  any  force  or  power. 

LUBRICATORS. 

All  bearings  must  be  steadily  and  effectively  lubricated, 
jn  order  to  remove  friction  as  far  as  possible,  or  the  work- 


44 


YOUNG  ENGINEERS     GUIDE. 


ing  power  of  the  engine  will  be  greatly  reduced.  Be- 
sides, without  complete  and  effective  lubrication,  the  bear- 
ings will  ''cut,"  or  wear  in  irregular  grooves,  etc.,  quick- 
ly ruining  the  engine. 

Bearings  are  lubricated  through  automatic  lubricator 
cups,  which  hold  oil  or  grease  and  discharge  it  uniformly 
upon  the  bearing  through  a  suitable  hole. 

A  sight  feed  ordinary  cup  permits  the  drops  of  oil  to 
be  seen  as  they  pass  downward  through  a  glass  tube,  and 


DESCRIPTION. 

C     1 — Body  or  Oil   Reservoir. 
C     3— Filler    Plug. 
C     4 — Water    Valve. 
C     5 — Plug    for    inserting    Sight- 
Feed  Glass. 
C     6 — Sight-Feed    Drain    Stem. 
C     7— Regulating   Valve. 
C     8— Drain  Valve. 
C     9 — Steam  Valve. 
C  10— Union   Nut. 
C  11 — Tail  Piece. 

H— Sight-Feed  Glass. 


THE  "DETROIT"  ZERO  DOUBLE  CONNECTION  LUBRICATOR. 


also  the  engineer  may  see  how  much  oil  there  is  in  the 
cup.  Such  a  cup  is  suitable  for  all  parts  of  an  engine 
except  the  crank  pin,  cross-head,  and^  of  course,  the 
cylinder. 

The  crank  pin  oiler  is  an  oil  cup  so  arranged  as  to  force 
oil  into  the  bearing  only  when  the  engine  is  working,  and 
more  rapidly  as  the  engine  works  more  rapidly.  In  one 
form,  which  uses  liquid  oil,  the  oil  stands  below  a  disc; 
from  which  is  the  opening  through  the  shank  to  the 
bearing.     As  the  engine  speeds  up,  the  centrifugal  force 


THE  SIMPLE  ENGINE. 


45 


tends  to  force  the  oil  to  the  top  of  the  cup  and  so  on  to  the 
bearing,  and  the  higher  the  speed  the  greater  the  amount 
of  oil  thrown  into  the  crank  pin. 

Hard  oil  or  grease  has  of  late  been  coming  into  exten- 
sive use.  It  is  placed  in  a  compression  cup,  at  the  top  of 
which  a  disc  is  pressed  down  by  a  spring,  and  also  by  some 
kind  of  a  screw.  From  time  to  time  the  screw  is  tight- 
ened up  by  hand,  and  the  spring  automatically  forces 
down  the  grease. 

The  Cylinder  Lubricator  is  constructed  on  a  different 
principle,  and  uses  an  entirely  different  kind  of  oil,  called 


GLASS    OIL.    CUP. 


sectional  view  ideal 
greAse  cup. 


"cylinder  oil."  A  sight-feed  automatic  oiler  is  so  ar- 
ranged that  the  oil  passes  through  water  drop  by  drop,  so 
that  each  drop  can  be  seen  behind  glass  before  it  passes 
into  the  steam  pipe  leading  from  the  boiler  to  the  cylin- 
der. The  oil  mingles  with  the  steam  and  passes  into  the 
steam  chest,  and  thence  into  the  cylinder,  lubricating  the 
valve  and  piston. 

The  discharge  of  the  oil  may  not  only  be  watched,  but 
regulated,  and  some  judgment  is  necessary  to  make  sure 
that  enough  oil  is  passing  into  the  cylinder  to  prevent  it 
from  cutting. 

The  oil  is  forced  into  the  steam  by  the  weight  of  the 


46  YOUNG  ENGINEERS*   GUIDE. 

column  of  water,  since  the  steam  pressure  is  the  same  at 
both  ends.  There  is  a  small  cock  by  which  this  water  of 
condensation  may  be  drained  off  when  the  engine  is  shut 
down  in  cold  weather.  Oilers  are  also  injured  by  strain- 
ing from  heating  caused  by  the  steam 
acting  on  cold  oil  when  all  the  cocks 
are  closed.  There  is  a  relief  cock  to 
prevent  this  strain,  and  it  should  be 
slightly  opened,  except  when  oiler  is  be- 
ing filled. 

There  are  a  number  of  different  types 
of  oilers,   with  their  cocks  arranged  in 
different  ways ;  but  the  manufacturer  al- 
AcoBN  OIL  PUMP,  ways    gives    diagrams    and    instructions 
fully  explaining  the  working  of  the  oiler. 
Oil  pumps  serving  the  same  purpose  are  now  often  used. 

DIFFERENTIAL  GEAR. 

The  gearing  by  which  the  traction  wheels  of  a  traction 
engine  are  made  to  drive  the  engine  is  an  important  item. 
Of  course,  it  is  desirable  to  apply  the  power  of  the  engine 
to  both  traction  wheels;  yet  if  both  hind  wheels  were 
geared  stiff,  the  engine  could  not  turn  from  'a  straight 
line,  since  in  turning  one  wheel  must  move  faster  than 
the  other.  The  differential  or  compensating  gear  is  a 
device  to  leave  both  wheels  free  to  move  one  ahead  of 
the  other  if  occasion  requires.  The  principle  is  much  the 
same  as  in  case  of  a  rachet  on  a  geared  wheel,  if  power 
were  applied  to  the  ratchet  to  make  the  wheel  turn;  if 
for  any  reason  the  wheel  had  a  tendency  of  its  own  to 
turn  faster  than  the  ratchet  forced  it,  it  would  be  free  to 
do  so.  When  corners  are  turned  the  power  is  applied  to 
one  wheel  only,  and  the  other  wheel  is  permitted  to  move 
faster  or  slower  than  the  wheel  to  which  the  gearing 
applies  the  power. 

There  are  several  forms  of  differential  gears,  differing 
largely  as  to  combination  of  spur  or  bevel  cogs.  One  of 
the  best  known  uses  four  little  beveled  pinions,  which  are 
placed  in  the  main  driving  wheel  as  shown  in  the  cut. 
Beveled  cogs  work  into  these  on  either  side  of  the  main 


The  simple  engine. 


47 


wheel.  If  one  traction  wheel  moves  faster  than  the  other 
these  pinions  move  around  and  adjust  the  gears  on  either 
side. 

FRICTION   CLUTCH. 

The  power  of  an  engine  is  usually  applied  to  the  trac- 
tion wheel  by  a  friction  clutch  working  on  the  inside  of 


the  fly-wheel.  (See  plan  of  Frick  Engine.)  Thr, 
traction  wheels  are  the  two  large,  broad-rimmed  hind 
wheels,  and  are  provided  with  projections  to  give  them 


48 


YOUNG  ENGINEERS     GUIDE. 


a  firm  footing  on  the  road.  Traction  engines  are  atso 
provided  with  mud  shoes  and  wheel  cleaning  devices  for 
mud  and  snow. 

THE  FUSIBLE   PLUG. 

The  fusible  plug  is  a  simple  screw  plug,  the  center  of 
which  is  bpred  out  and  subsequently  filled  with 
some  other  metal  that  will  melt  at  a  lower  tem- 
perature than  steel  or  iron.  This  plug  is  placed  in  the 
crown  sheet  of  a  locomotive  boiler  as  a  precaution  for 


AULTMAN  &  TAYLOR  BEVEL  COMPENSATING  GEAR 


THE  SIMPLE  ENGINE. 


49 


safety.  Should  the  crown  sheet  become  free  of  water 
when  the  fire  is  very  hot,  the  soft  metal  in  the  fusible 
plug  would  melt  and  run  out,  and  the  overheated  steam 


DIFFERENTIAL  GEAR,   SHOWING  CUSHION    SPRINGS 
AND  BEVEX.   PINION. 

would  escape  into  the  firebox,  putting  out  the  fire  and 
giving  the  boiler  relief  so  that  an  explosion  would  be 
avoided.     In  some  states  a  fusible  plug  is  required  by 


50  YOUNG  engineers'   GUIDE. 

law,  and  one  is  found  in  nearly  every  boiler  which  has  a 
crown  sheet.  Return  flue  boilers  and  others  which  do 
not  have  crown  sheets  (as  for  example  the  vertical)  do 
not  have  fusible  plugs.  To  be  of  value  a  £'usible  plus: 
should  be  renewed  or  changed  once  a  month. 

STUFFING  BOXES. 

Any  arrangement  to  make  a  steam-tight  joint  about  a 
moving  rod,  such  as  a  piston  rod  or  steam  valve  rod. 
would  be  called  a  stuffing  box.  Usually  the  stuffing  box 
gives  free  play  to  a  piston  rod  or  valve  rod,  without  al- 
lowing any  steam  to  escape.  A  stuffing  box  is  also 
used  on  a  pump  piston  sometimes,  or  a  compressed  air 
piston.  In  all  these  cases  it  consists  of  an  annular  space 
around  the  moving  rod  which  can  be  partly  filled  by  some 
pliable  elastic  material  such  as  hemp,  cotton,  rubber,  or 
the  like ;  and  this  filling  is  held  in  place  and  made  tighter 
or  looser  by  what  is  called  a  gland,  which  is  forced  into 
the  partly  filled  box  by  screwing  up  a  cap  on  the  outside 
of  the  cylinder.  Stuffing  boxes  must  be  repacked  occa- 
sionally, since  the  packing  material  will  get  hard  and 
dead,  and  will  either  leak  steam  or  cut  the  rod. 

CYLINDER  COCKS. 

These  cocks  are  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  the  water 
formed  by  condensation  of  steam  out  of  the  cylinder. 
They  should  be  opened  whenever  the  engine  is  stopped  or 
started,  and  should  be  left  open  when  the  engine  is  shut 
down,  especially  in  cold  weather  to  prevent  freezing  of 
water  and  consequent  damage.  Attention  to  these  cocks 
is  very  important. 

These  are  small  cocks  arranged  about  the  pump  and  at 
other  places  for  the  purpose  of  testing  the  inside  action. 
By  them  it  is  possible  to  see  if  the  pump  is  working  prop- 
erly, etc. 

STEAM    INDICATOR. 

The  steam  indicator  is  an  instrument  that  can  be  at- 
tached to  either  end  of  a  steam  cylinder,  and  will  indicate 
the  character  of  the   steam   pressure   during  the   entire 


*tilE  SIMPLE  ENGINE. 


51 


Stroke  of  the  piston.  It  shows  clearly  whether  the  lead  is 
right,  how  much  cushion  there  is,  etc.  It  is  very  import- 
ant in  studying-  the  economical  use  and  distribution  of 
steam,  expansive  force  of  steam,  etc. 


2?  8 

Org    ^ 

<:^   > 

S.5 


w 


52 


YOUNG  EiSrGi^fEERS'   GXJlM. 


LIST  OF  ATTACPIMENTS  FOR  TRACTION  ENGINE  AND  BOILER. 

The  following  list  of  brasses,  etc.,  which  are  packed 
with  the  Case  traction  engine  will  be  useful  for  rtference 
in  connection  with  any  similar  traction  engine  and  boiler. 
The  young  engineer  should  rapidly  run  over  every  new- 
engine  and  locate  each  of  these  parts,  which  will  be  dif- 
ferently placed  on  different  engines  : 


I   Steam  Gauge  with  siphon. 
I  Safety  Valve. 
I   Large  Lubricator 
I   Small       Lubricator       for 
Pump. 

1  Glass  Water  Gauge  com- 
plete vv^ith  glass  and  rods. 

2  Gauge  Cocks. 
I  Whi'stle. 

I  Injector  Complete. 

I  Globe  Valve  for  Blow-off. 

I  Compression    Grease   Cup 

for  Cross  Head. 
I  Grease     Cup     for     Crank 

Pin. 
I  Oiler  for  Reverse   Block. 
I   Glass  Oiler  for  Guides. 
I   Small  Oiler  for  Eccentric 

Rod. 

1  Cylinder   Cock    (i    is   left 
in  place. 

2  Stop      Cocks      to     drain 
Heater. 

I  Stop  Cock  for  Hose  Coup- 
ling on  Pump. 


I  Bibb  Nose  Cock  for 
Pump. 

1  Pet  Cock  for  Throttle. 

2  Pet  Cocks  for  Steam  Cyl- 
inder of  Pump. 

I  Pet  Cock  for  Water  Cyl- 
inder of  Pump. 

I  Pet  Cock  for  Feed  Pipe 
from  Pump. 

I  Pet  Cock  for  Feed  Pipe 
from  Injector. 

I  Governor  Belt. 

I   Flue  Cleaner. 

15  ft.  lin.  Suction  Hose. 

5  ft.  Sprinkling  Hose. 

1  Strainer  for  Suction  Hose. 
[   Strainer  for  Funnel. 

4.  ft.   6  in.   of  in.   Hose  for 

Injector. 
5  ft.   6  in   of  in.   Hose   for 

Pump. 

2  Nipples  }ix2y^  in.  for 
Hose. 

2  }i  in.  Hose  Clamps. 
2  ^2  in.  Hose  Strainers. 


THE  SIMPLE  ENGINli.  53 

TEST  QUESTIONS  ON  BOILER  AND  ENGINE 

Q.  How  is  the  modern  stationary  fire-flue  boiler  ar- 
ranged ? 

Q.     How  does  the  locomotive  ty\xt  of  boiler  differ? 

Q.     What  is  a  return  flue  boiler? 

Q.  What  is  a  water-tube  boiler  and  how  does  it  differ 
from  a  fire-flue  tubular  boiler  ? 

Q.  What  is  a  vertical  boiler  and  what  are  its  advan- 
tages ? 

Q.     What  is  the  shell  ? 

Q.     What  are  the  boiler  heads  ? 

Q.     What  are  the  tube  sheets  ? 

Q.     What  is  the  firebox  ? 

Q.     What  is  the  water  leg? 

Q,     What  is  the  crown-sheet  ? 

Q.     Where  is  the  smoke-box  located? 

Q.     What  is  the  steam  dome  intended  for? 

O.     What  is  the  mud-drum  for? 

Q.     What  are  man-holes  and  hand-holes  for? 

Q.     What  is  a  boiler  jacket? 

Q.     What  is  a  steam  jacket? 

Q.     Where  is  the  ash-pit  ? 

Q.     What  are  dead-plates? 

Q.     How  is  grate  surface  measured? 

O.     What  is  forced  draft  ? 

Q.     How  is  heating  surface  measured  ? 

Q.     What  is  steam  space  ? 

Q.     What  is  water  space? 

Q.     What  is  a  diaphragm  plate? 

Q.  What  is  the  first  duty  of  an  engineer  in  taking 
charge  of  a  new  boiler  ? 

Q.  What  are  the  water  gauge  and  try  cocks  for,  and 
how  are  they  placed? 

Q.  What  is  the  steam  gauge  and  how  may  it  be 
tested  ? 

Q.  What  is  a  safety  valve  ?  Should  it  be  touched  by 
the  engineer?  How  may  he  test  it  with  the  steam 
gauge? 

Q.     How  is  a  boiler  first  filled  with  water? 

Q.     How  is  it  filled  when  under  pressure  ? 


54  YOUNG  ENGINEERS     GUIDE. 

Q.  What  is  an  independent  pump?  What  is  a  cross- 
head  pump? 

Q.  What  is  a  check  valve,  and  what  is  its  use,  and 
where  located  ? 

Q.     What  is  a  heater  and  how  does  it  work? 

Q.  What  is  an  injector,  and  what  is  the  principle  of 
its  operation? 

Q.  Where  are  the  blow-off  cocks  located?  How 
should  they  be  used  ? 

Q.     In  what  cases  should  spark  arrester  be  used? 

Q.     Who  invented  the  steam  engine,  and  when? 

Q.     What  are  the  essential  parts  of  a  steam  engine  ? 

Q.     What  is  the  cylinder,  and  how  is  it  used? 

Q.  What  is  the  piston,  and  how  does  it  work?  The 
piston-rings  ? 

Q.  What  is  the  piston  rod  and  how  must  it  be  fast- 
ened? 

Q.  What  is  the  crosshead,  and  how  does  it  move? 
What  are  guides  or  ways  ?     Shoes  ? 

Q.  What  is  the  connecting  rod?  Wrist  pin?  Crank 
pin? 

Q.     What  is  the  crank?     Crank  shaft? 

Q.  Where  is  the  throttle  valve  located,  and  what  does 
opening  and  closing  it  do? 

Q.  What  is  the  steam  chest  for,  and  where  is  it 
placed  ? 

Q.     What  is  a  steam  valve?     Valve  seats?     Ports? 

Q.  What  is  the  exhaust?  Exhaust  chamber?  Ex- 
haust port?         Exhaust  nozzle?     Wh,at  is  a  condenser? 

Q.  How  is  the  valve  worked,  and  what  duties  does  it 
perform,  and  how? 

Q.     What  is  clearance? 

Q.     What  is  lead  ? 

Q.     What  is  cushion? 

Q.     How  would  you  set  a  valve?    What  is  lap? 

Q.  How  is  a  steam  valve  moved  back  and  forth  in  its 
seat  ? 

Q.     How  may  an  engine  be  reversed  ? 

Q.     What  is  a  governor,  and  how  does  it  work? 


THE  SIMPLE  ENGINE.  55 

Q.  What  is  an  eccentric  ?  Eccentric  shea\  e  ?  Strap  ? 
Rod? 

Q.     What  is  the  throw  of  an  eccentric  ? 

Q.     How  does  the  hnk  reversing  gear  work  ? 

Q.     How  does  the  Woolf  reverse  gear  work? 

Q.  How  does  the  Meyer'valve  gear  work?  Will  it  re- 
verse an  engine  ? 

Q.  What  are  the  chief  difficulties  in  the  working  of  a 
governor  ? 

Q.     What  are  key,  gib,  and  strap?     Brasses? 

Q.     What  is  the  boss  of  a  crank  ?     Web  ? 

Q.  How  may  noiseless  ruilning  of  a  crank  be  se- 
cured ? 

Q  What  are  journals?  Pedestals?  Pillow  blocks? 
Journal  boxes  ? 

Q.     What  is  the  object  in  having  a  fly  wheel? 

Q.  What  di'fferent  kinds  of  lubricators  are  there? 
Where  may  hard  oil  or  grease  be  used  ?  Is  the  oil  used 
for  lubricating  the  cylinder  the  same  as  that  used  for  rest 
of  engine  ? 

Q.     How  does  a  cylinder  lubricator  work? 

Q.     What  is  differential  gear,  and  what  is  it  for? 

Q.  What  is  the  use  of  a  fusible  plug,  and  how  is  it 
arranged  ? 

Q.  What  are  stuffing-boxes,  and  how  are  they  con- 
structed ? 

Q.  What  are  cylinder  cocks,  and  what  are  they  used 
for? 

O.     What  are  pet  cocks  ? 

Q.     What  is  a  steam  indicator? 


CHAPTER  IV. 

HOW  TO  MANAGE  A  TRACTION   ENGINE  BOILER. 

We  will  suppose  that  the  young  engineer  fully  under- 
stands all  parts  of  the  boiler  and  engine,  as  explained  in 
the  preceding  chapters.  It  is  well  to  run  over  the  ques- 
tions several  times,  to  make  sure  that  every  point  has 
been  fully  covered  and  is  well  understood. 

We  will  suppose  that  you  have  an  engine  in  good  run- 
ning order.  If  you  have  a  new  engine  and  it  starts  off 
nice  and  easy  (the  lone  engine  without  load)  with  twenty 
pounds  steam  pressure  in  the  boiler,  you  may  make  up 
your  mind  that  you  have  a  good  engine  to  handle  and 
one  that  will  give  but  little  trouble.  Bat  if  it  requires  fifty 
or  sixty  pounds  to  start  it,  you  want  to  keep  your  eyes 
open,  for  something  is  tight.  But  don't  begin  taking  the 
engine  to  pieces,  for  you  might  get  more  pieces  than  you 
know  what  to  do  with.  Oil  every  bearing  fully,  and  then 
start  your  engine  and  let  it  run  for  a  while.  Then  notice 
whether  you  find  anything  getting  warm.  If  you  do,  stop 
and  loosen  up  a  very  little  and  start  again.  If  the  heat- 
ing still  continues,  loosen  again  as  before.  But  remem- 
ber, loosen  but  httle  at  a  time,  for  a  box  or  journal  will 
heat  from  being  too  loose  as  quickly  as  from  being  too 
tight,  and  if  you  have  found  a  warm  box,  don't  let  that 
box  take  all  your  attention,  but  keep  your  eye  on  the 
other  bearings. 

In  the  case  of  a  new  engine,  the  cylinder  rings  may  be 
a  little  tight,  and  so  more  steam  pressure  will  be  required 
to  start  the  engine ;  but  this  is  no  fault,  for  in  a  day  or  two 
they  will  be  working  all  right  if  kept  well  oiled. 

In  starting  a  new  engine  trouble  sometimes  comes  from 
the  presence  of  a  coal  cinder  in  some  of  the  boxes,  which 
has  worked  in  during  shipment.  Before  starting  a  new 
engine,  the  boxes  and  oil  holes  should  therefore  be  thor- 

56 


HOW   TO   MANAGE   A   BOILER.  $7 

oughly  cleaned  out.  For  this  purpose  the  engineer 
should  always  have  some  cotton  waste  or  an  oiled  rag 
ready  for  constant  use. 

A  new  engine  should  be  run  slowly  and  carefully  until 
it  is  found  to  be  in  perfect  running  order. 

If  you  are  beginning  on  an  old  engine  in  good  running 
order,  the  above  instructions  will  not  be  needed ;  but  it  is 
well  to  take  note  of  them. 

Now  if  your  engine  is  all  right,  you  may  run  the  press- 
ure up  to  the  point  of  blowing  off,  which  is  lOO  to  130 
pounds,  at  which  most  safety  valves  are  set  at  the  fac- 
tory. It  is  not  uncommon  for  a  new  pop  to  stick,  and  as 
the  steam  runs  up  it  is  well  to  try  it  by  pulling  the  relief 
lever.  If  on  letting  it  go  it  stops  the  escaping  steam  at 
once,  it  is  all  right.  If,  however,  the  steam  continues  to 
escape  the  valve  sticks  in  the  chamber.  Usually  a  slight 
tap  with  a  wrench  or  hammer  will  stop  it  at  once ;  but  don't 
get  excited  if  the  steamt  continues  to  escape.  As  long  as 
you  have  plenty  of  water  in  the  boiler,  and  know  that  you 
have  it,  you  are  all  right. 

STARTING  UP  A  BOILER. 

Almost  the  only  danger  from  explosion  of  a  boiler  is 
from  not  having  sufficient  water  in  the  boiler.  The  boiler 
is  filled  in  the  first  place,  as  has  already  been  explained, 
by  hand  through  a  funnel  at  the  filler  plug,  or  by  a  force 
pump.  The  water  should  stand  an  inch  and  a  half  in  the 
glass  of  the  water  gauge  before  the  fire  is  started.  It 
should  be  heated  up  slowly  so  as  not  to  strain  the  boiler  or 
connections.  When  the  steam  pressure  as  shown  by  the 
steam  gauge  is  ten  or  fifteen  pounds,  the  blower  may  be 
used  to  increase  the  draft. 

If  you  let  the  water  get  above  the  top  of  the  glass,  you 
are  liable  to  knock  out  a  cylinder  head ;  and  if  you  let  the 
water  get  below  the  bottom  of  the  glass,  you  are  likely  to 
explode  your  boiler. 

The  glass  gauge  is  not  to  be  depended  upon,  however, 
for  a  number  of  things  may  happen  to  interfere -with  its 
working.  Some  one  may  inadvertently  turn  off  the  gauge 
cocks,  and  though  the  water  stands  at  the  proper  height 
in  the  glass,  the  water  in  the  boiler  will  be  very  different. 


58  YOUNG  engineers'  guide. 

A  properly  made  boiler  is  supplied  with  two  to  four  try- 
cocks,  one  below  the  proper  water  line,  and  one  above  it. 
If  there  are  more  than  two  they  will  be  distributed  at  suit- 
able points  between. 

When  the  boiler  is  under  pressure,  turn  on  the  lower 
try-cock  and  you.  should  get  water.  You  will  know  it 
because  it  will  appear  as  white  mist.  Then  try  the  upper 
try-cock,  and  you  will  get  steam,  which  will  appear  blue. 

NEVER  FAIL  TO  USE  THE  TRY-COCKS  FRE- 
QUENTLY. This  is  necessary  not  only  because  you 
never  know  when  the  glass  is  deceiving  you ;  but  if  you 
fail  to  use  them  they  will  get  stopped  up  with  lime  or  mud, 
and  when  you  need  to  use  them  they  will  not  work. 

In  order  also  to  keep  the  water  gauge  in  proper  condi- 
tion, it  should  be  frequently  blown  out  in  the  following 
manner :  Shut  off  the  top  gauge  cock  and  open  the  drain 
cock  at  the  bottom  of  the  gauge.  This  allows  the  water 
and  steam  to  blow  through  the  lower  cock  of  the  watef 
gauge,  and  you  know  that  it  is  open.  Any  lime  or  mud 
.that  has  begun  to  accumulate  will  also  be  carried  off.  Af- 
ter allowing  the  steam  to  escape  a  few  seconds,  shut  off 
the  lower  gauge  cock,  and  open  the  upper  one,  and  allow  it 
to  blow  off  about  the  same  time.  Then  shut  the  drain  cock 
and  open  both  gauge  cocks,  when  you  will  see  the  water 
seek  its  level,  and  you  can  feel  assured  that  it  is  reliable 
and  in  good  working  condition.  This  little  operation  you 
should  perform,  every  day  you  run  your  engine.  If  you 
do  you  will  not  think  you  have  sufficient  water  in  the 
boiler,  but  will  know.  The  engineer  who  always  know\s 
he  has  water  in  the  boiler  will  not  be  likely  to  have  an  ex- 
plosion. Especially  should  you  never  start  your  fire  in 
the  morning  simply  because  you  see  water  in  the  gauge. 
You  should  knozv  that  there  is  water  in  the  boiler. 

Now  if  your  pump  and  boiler  are  in  good  working  con- 
dition, and  you  leave  the  globe  valve  in  the  supply  pipe 
to  the  pump  open,  with  the  hose  in  the  tank,  you  will  prob- 
ably come  to  your  engine  in  the  morning  and  find  the 
boiler  nearly  full  of  water,  and  you  will  think  some  one 
has  been  tampering  with  the  engine.  The  truth  is,  how- 
ever, that  as  the  steam  condensed,  a  vacuum  was  formed, 
and  the  water  flowed  in  on  account  of  atmospheric  press- 


HOW   TO   MANAGE  A  BOILER.  59 

ure,  just  as  it  flows  into  a  suction  pump  when  the  plunger 
rises  and  creates  a  vacuum  in  the  pump.  Check  valves 
are  arranged  to  prevent  anything  passing  out  of  the  boiler, 
but  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  water  passing  in. 

The  only  other  cause  of  an  explosion,  beside  poor  mate- 
rial in  the  manufacture  of  the  boiler,  is  too  high  steam 
pressure,  due  to  a  defective  safety  valve  or  imperfect 
team  gauge.  The  steam  gauge  is  likely  to  get  out  of 
order  in  a  number  of  ways,  and  so  is  the  safety  valve.  To 
make  sure  that  both  are  all  right,  the  one  should  frequent- 
ly be  tested  by  the  other.  The  lever  of  the  safety  valve 
should  frequently  be  tried  from  time  to  time,  to  jnake  sure 
the  valve  opens  and  closes  easily,  and  whenever  the  safety 
valve  blows  off,  the  steam  gauge  should  be  noted  to  see 
if  it  indicates  the  pressure  at  which  the  safety  has  been 
set. 

WHEN  YOUR  ENGINE  IS  ALL  RIGHT,  LET  IT  ALONE. 

Some  engineers  are  always  loosening  a  nut  here,  light- 
ning up  a  box  there,  adjusting  this,  altering  that.  When 
an  engine  is  all  right  they  keep  at  it  till  it  is  all  wrong. 
As  a  result  they  are  in  trouble  most  of  the  time.  When 
an  engine  is  running  all  right,  LET  IT  ALONE.  Don't 
think  you  are  not  earning  your  salary  because  you  are 
nerely  sitting  still  and  looking  on.  If  you  must  be  at 
work,  keep  at  it  with  an  oily  rag,  cleaning  and  polishing 
up.  That  is  the  way  to  find  out  if  anything  is  really  the 
matter.  As  the  practised  hand  of  the  skilled  engineer 
goes  over  an  engine,  his  ears  wide  open  for  any  peculiar- 
ity of  sound,  anything  that  is  not  as  it  should  be  will  make 
itself  decidedly  apparent.  On  the  other  hand,  an  en- 
gineer who  does  not  keep  his  engine  clean  and  bright  by 
constantly  passing  his  hand  over  it  with  an  oily  rag,  is 
certain  to  overlook  something,  which  perhaps  in  the  end 
will  cost  the  owner  a  good  many  dollars  to  put  right. 

Says  an  old  engineer*  we  know,  ''When  I  see  an  en- 
gineer watching  his  engine  closely  while  running,  I  am 
most  certain  to  see  another   commendable  feature   in  a 

*J.  H.  Maggard,  author  of  "Rough  and  Tumble  Engineering," 
to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  a  number  of  valuable  suggestions  in 
this  chapter. 


6o  YOUNG  engineers'    GUIDE. 

good  engineer,  and  that  is,  when  he  stops  his  engine  he 
will  pick  up  a  greasy  rag  and  go  over  his  engine  carefully, 
wiping  every  working  part,  watching  or  looking  carefully 
at  every  point  that  he  touches.  If  a  nut  is  working 
loose,  he  finds  it ;  if  a  bearing  is  hot,  he  finds  it ;  if  any  part 
of  his  engine  has  been  cutting,  he  finds  it.  He  picks  up  a 
greasy  rag  instead  of  a  wrench,  for  the  engineer  that  un- 
derstands his  business  and  attends  to  it  never  picks  up  a 
wrench  unless  he  has  something  to  do  with  it." 

This  same  engineer  goes  on  with  some  more  most  ex- 
cellent advice.     Says  he : 

"Now,  if  your  engine  runs  irregularly,  that  is,  if  it 
runs  up  to  a  higher  speed  than  you  want,  and  then  runs 
down,  you  are  likely  to  say  at  once,  'Oh,  I  know  what  the 
trouble  is,  it  is  the  governor.'  Well,  suppose  it  is.  What 
are  you  going  to  do  about  it?  Are  you  going  to  shut 
down  at  once  and  go  to  tinkering  with  it  ?  No,  don't  do 
that.  Stay  close  to  the  throttle  valve  and  watch  the 
governor  closely.  Keep  your  eye  on  the  governor  stem, 
and  when  the  engine  starts  off  on  one  of  its  speed  tilts, 
^^ou  wilt  see  the  stem  go  down  through  the  stuffing  box 
and  then  stop  and  stick  in  one  place  until  the  engine  slows 
down  below  its  regular  speed,  and  it  then  lets  loose  and 
goes  up  quickly  and  your  engine  lopes  off  again.  You 
have  now  located  the  trouble.  It  is  in  the  stuffing  box 
around  the  little  brass  rod  or  governor  stem.  The  pack- 
ing has  become  dry  and  by  loosening  it  up  and  applying 
oil  you  may  remedy  the  trouble  until  such  time  as  you 
can  repack  it  with  fresh  packing.  Candle  wick  is  as  good 
for  this  purpose  as  anything  you  can  use. 

"But  if  the  governor  does  not  act  as  I  have  described, 
and  the  stem  seems  to  be  perfectly  free  and  easy  in  the 
box,  and  the  governor  still  acts  queerly,  starting  off  and 
running  fast  for  a  few  seconds  and  then  suddenly  con- 
cluding to  take 'it  easy  and  away  goes  the  engine  again, 
see  if  the  governor  belt  is  all  right,  and  if  it  is  it  would  be 
well  for  you  to  stop  and  see  if  a  wheel  is  not  loose.  It 
might  be  either  the  little  belt  wheel  or  one  of  the  little 
cog  wheels.  If  you  find  these  are  all  right,  examine  the 
spool  on  the  crank  shaft  from  which  the  governor  is  run, 


HOW   TO   MANAGE  A  BOILER.  6i 

and  you  will  probably  find  it  loose.  If  the  engine  has  been 
run  for  any  length  of  time,  you  will  always  find  the 
trouble  in  one  of  these  places ;  but  if  it  is  a  new  one,  the 
governor  valve  might  work  a  little  tight  in  the  valve  cham- 
ber, and  you  may  have  to  take  it  out  and  use  a  little  emery 
paper  to  take  off  the  rough  projections  on  the  valve. 
Never  use  a  file  on  this  valve  if  you  can  get  emery  paper, 
and  I  should  advise  you  always  to  have  some  of  it  with 
you.     It  will  often  come  handy." 

This  is  good  advice  in  regard  to  any  trouble  you  may 
have  with  an  engine.  Watch  the  affected  part  closely; 
think  the  matter  over  carefully,  and  see  if  you  cannot  lo- 
cate the  difficulty  before  you  even  stop  your  engine.  If 
you  find  the  trouble  and  know  that  you  have  found  it, 
you  will  soon  be  able  to  correct  the  defect,  and  no  time  will 
be  lost.  At  the  same  time  you  will  not  ruin  your  engine 
by  trying  all  sorts  of  remedies  at  random  in  the  thought 
that  you  may  ultimately  hit  the  right  thing.  The  chances 
are  that  before  you  do  hit  the  right  point,  you  will  have 
put  half  a  dozen  other  matters  wrong,  and  it  will  take  half 
a  day  to  get  the  matter  right  again. 

As  there  are  many  different  types  of  governors  in  use, 
it  would  be  impossible  to  give  exact  directions  for  regu- 
lating that  would  apply  to  them  all ;  but  the  following  sug- 
gestions applying  to  the  Waters  governor  (one  widely 
used  on  threshing  engines)  will  give  a  general  idea  of  the 
method  for  all : 

There  are  two  little  brass  nuts  on  the  top  of  the  stem  of 
the  governor,  one  a  thumb  nut  and  the  other  a  loose  jam 
nut.  To  increase  the  speed,  loosen  the  jam  nut  and  then 
turn  the  thumb  nut  back  slowly,  watching  the  motion  of 
the  engine  all  the  time.  When  the  required  speed  has 
been  obtained,  then  tighten  up  as  snug  as  you  can  with 
your  fingers  (not  using  a  wrench).  To  decrease  the  speed, 
loosen  the  jam  nut  as  before,  running  it  up  a  few  turns, 
and  then  turn  down  the  thumb  nut  till  the  speed  meets 
your  requirements,  when  the  thumb  nut  is  made  fast  as 
before.  In  any  case,  be  very  careful  not  to  press  down  on 
the  stem  when  turning  the  thumb  nut,  as  this  will  make 


62  Young  engineers'  guide. 

the  engine  run  a  little  slower  than  will  be  the  case  when 
your  hand  has  been  removed. 

If  your  engine  does  not  start  with  an  open  throttle,  look 
to  see  if  the  governor  stem  has  not  been  screwed  down 
tight.  This  is  usually  the  case  with  a  new  engine,  which 
has  been  screwed  down  for  safety  in  transportation. 

WATER  FOR  THE  BOILER. 

There  is  nothing  that  needs  such  constant  watching  and 
is  likely  to  cause  so  much  trouble  if  it  is  not  cared  for,  as 
the  supply  of  water.  Hard  well  water  will  coat  the  in- 
side of  the  boiler  with  lime  and  soon  reduce  its  steaming 
power  in  a  serious  degree,  to  say  nothing  of  stopping  up 
pipes,  cocks,  etc.  At  the  same  time,  rain  water  that  is 
perfectly  pure  (theoretically)  will  be  found  to  have  a  lit- 
tle acid  or  alkali  in  it  that  will  eat  through  the  iron  or  steel 
and  do  equal  damage. 

However,  an  engineer  must  use  what  water  he  can.  He 
cannot  have  it  made  to  order  for  him,  but  he  must  take  it 
from  well,  from  brook,  or  cistern,  or  roadside  ditch,  as 
circumstances  may  require.  The  problem  for  the  engi- 
neer is  not  to  get  the  best  water,  but  to  make  the  best  use 
of  whatever  water  he  can  get,  always,  of  course,  choosing 
the  best  and  purest  when  there  is  such  a  thing  as  choos- 
ing. 

In  the  first  place,  all  supply  pipes  in  water  that  is 
muddy  or  likely  to  have  sticks,  leaves,  or  the  like  in  it, 
should  be  furnished  with  strainers.  If  sticks  or  leaves  get 
into  the  valve,  the  expense  in  time  and  worry  to  get  them 
out  will  be  ten  times  the  cost  of  a  strainer. 

If  the  water  is  rain  water,  and  the  boiler  is  a  new  one, 
it  would  be  well  to  put  in  a  little  lime  to  give  the  iron  a 
slight  coating  that  will  protect  it  from  any  acid  or  alkali 
corrosion. 

If  the  water  is  hard,  some  compound  or  sal  ammonia 
should  be  used.  No  specific  directions  can  be  given,  since 
water  is  made  hard  by  having  dififerent  substances  dis- 
solved in  it,  and  the  right  compound  or  chemical  is  that 
which  is  adapted  to  the  particular  substance  you  are  to 
counteract.     An  old  engineer  says  his  advice  is  to  use  no 


HOW   TO   MANAGE  A  BOILER.  63 

compound  at  all,  but  to  put  a  hatful  of  potatoes  in  the 
boiler  every  morning. 

Occasionally  using  rain  water  for  a  day  or  two  previous 
to  cleaning  is  one  of  the  best  things  in  the  world  to  re- 
move and  throw  down  all  scale.  It  beats  compounds  at 
every  point.  It  is  nature's  remedy  for  the  bad  effects  of 
hard  water. 

The  important  thing,  however,  is  to  clean  the  boiler 
thoroughly  and  often.  In  no  case  should  the  lime  be  al- 
lowed to  bake  on  the  iron.  If  it  gets  thick,  the  iron  or 
steel  is  sure  to  burn,  and  the  lime  to  bake  so  hard  it  will  be 
almost  impossible  to  get  it  off.  But  if  the  boiler  is  cleaned 
often,  such  a  thing  will  not  happen. 

Mud  or  sediment  can  be  blown  off  by  opening  the  valve 
from  the  mud  drum  or  the  firebox  at  the  bottom  of  the 
boiler  when  the  pressure  is  not  over  15  or  20  pounds ;  and 
at  this  pressure  much  of  the  lime  distributed  about  the 
boiler  may  be  blown  off.  But  this  is  not  enough.  The 
inside  of  the  boiler  should  be  scraped  and  thoroughly 
washed  out  with  a  hose  and  force-pump  just  as  often  as 
the  condition  of  the  water  requires  it. 

In  cleaning  the  boiler,  always  be  careful  to  scrape  all 
the  lime  off  the  top  of  the  fusible  plug. 

THE  PUMP. 

In  order  to  manage  the  pump  successfully,  the  young 
engineer  must  understand  thoroughly  its  construction  as 
already  described.  It  is  also  necessary  to  understand 
something  of  the  theory  of  atmospheric  pressure,  lifting 
power,  and  forcing  power. 

First  see  that  the  cocks  or  globe  valves  (whichever  are 
used)  are  open  both  between  the  boiler  and  the  pump  and 
between  the  pump  and  the  water  supply.  The  globe 
valve  next  the  boiler  should  never  be  closed,  except  when 
examining*  the  boiler  check  valve.  Then  open  the  little 
pet  cock  between  the  two  upper  horizontal  check  valves. 
Be -sure  that  the  check  valves  are  in  good  order,  so  that 
water  can  pass  only  jn  one  direction.  A  clear,  sharp 
click  of  the  check  valves  is  certain  evidence  that  the  pump 
is  working  well.     If  you  cannot  hear  the  click,  take  a  stick 


64  YOUNG  engineers'   GUIDE. 

or  pencil  between  your  teeth  at  one  end,  put  the  other  end 
on  the  valve,  stuff  your  fingers  in  your  ears,  and  you  will 
hear  the  movement  of  the  valve  as  plainly  as  if  it  were  a 
sledge-hammer. 

The  small  drain  cock  between  the  horizontal  check 
valves  is  used  to  drain  hot  water  out  of  the  pump  in  start- 
ing, for  a  pump  will  never  work  well  with  hot  water  in 
it;  and  to  drain  off  all  water  in  closing  down  in  cold 
Vk^eather,  to  prevent  damage  from  freezing.  It  also  assists 
in  testing  the  working  of  the  pump.  In  starting  up  it 
may  be  left  open.  If  water  flows  from  the  drain  cock,  we 
know  the  pump  is  working  all  right,  and  then  close  the 
drain  cock.  If  you  are  at  any  time  in  doubt  as  to  whether 
water  is  going  into  the  boiler  properly,  you  may  open  this 
drain  cock  and  see  if  cold  water  flows  freely.  If  it  does, 
everything  is  working  as  it  should.  If  hot  water  appears, 
you  may  know  something  is  wrong.  Also,  to  test  the 
pump,  place  your  hand  on  tne  two  check  valves,  and  if 
"they  are  cold,  the  pump  is  all  right ;  if  they  are  hot,  some- 
thing is  wrong,  since  the  heat  must  come  from  the  boiler, 
and  no  hot  water  or  steam  should  ever  be  allowed  to  pass 
from  the  boiler  back  to  the  pump. 

A  stop  cock  next  the  boiler  is  decidedly  preferable  to  a 
globe  valve,  since  you  can  tell  if  it  is  open  by  simply 
looking  at  it ;  whereas  you  must  put  your  hand  on  a  globe 
valve  and  turn  it.  Trouble  often  arises  through  inadver- 
tently closing  the  valve  or  cock  next  the  boiler,  in  which 
case,  of  course,  no  water  can  pass  into  the  boiler,  and  the 
pump  is  likely  to  be  ruined,  since  the  witer  must  get  out 
somewhere.  Some  part  of  the  pump  would  be  sure  to 
burst  if  worked  against  a  closed  boiler  cock  or  valve. 

Should  the  pump  suddenly  cease  to  work  or  stop,  first 
see  if  you  have  any  water  in  the  tank.  If  there  is  water, 
stoppage  may  be  due  to  air  in  the  pump  chamber,  which 
can  get  in  only  through  the  stufling-box.  If  this  is  true, 
tighten  up  the  pump  plunger  stuffing-box  nut  a  little.  If 
now  the  pump  starts  off  well,  you  have  found  the  diffi- 
cultv ;  but  at  the  first  opportunity  you  ought  to  repack  the 
stuffing-box. 

If  the  stuffing-box  is  all  right,  examine  the  supply  sue- 


MOW   TO   MANAGE  A  BOILER.  65 

tlon  hose.  See  that  nothing  is  clogging  the  strainer,  and 
ascertain  whether  the  water  is  sucked  in  or  not.  If  it  is 
sucked  in  and  then  is  forced  out  again  (which  you  can 
ascertain  by  holding  your  hand  lightly  over  the  suction 
pipe),  you  may  know  something  is  the  matter  with  the 
first  check  valve.  Probably  a  stick  or  stone  has  gotten 
into  it  and  prevents  it  from  shutting  down. 

If  there  is  nc  suction,  examine  the  second  check  valve. 
If  there  is  something  under  it  that  prevents  its  closing,  the 
water  will  flow  back  into  the  pump  chamber  again  as 
soon  as  the  plunger  is  drawn  back. 

You  can  always  tell  whether  the  trouble  is  in  the  second 
check  or  in  the  hot  water  check  valve  by  opening  the 
little  drain  cock.  If  hot  water  flows  from  it,  you  may 
know  that  the  hot  water  check  valve  is  out  of  order;  if 
only  cold  water  flows,  you  may  be  pretty  sure  the  hot 
water  check  is  all  right.  If  there  is  any  reason  to  sus- 
pect the  hot  water  check  valve,  close  the  stop  cock  or  valve 
next  the  boiler  before  you  touch  the  check  in  any  way. 
To  tamper  with  the  hot  water  check  while  the 
steam  pressure  is  upon  it  would  be  highly  dangerous,  for 
you  are  liable  to  get  badly  burned  with  escaping  steam 
or  hot  water.  At  the  same  time,  be  very  sure  the  stop 
cock  or  valve  next  the  boiler  is  open  again  before  you 
start  the  pump. 

Another  reason  for  check  valves  refusing  to  work  be- 
sides having  something  under  themi,  is  that  the  valve  may 
stick  in  the  valve  chamber  because  of  a  rough  place  in  the 
chamber,  or  a  little  projection  on  the  valve.  Light  tap- 
ping with  a  wrench  may  remedy  the  matter.  If  that  does 
not  work,  try  the  following  plan  suggested  by  an  old 
engineer* :  'Take  the  valve  out,  bore  a  hole  in  a  board 
about  one-half  inch  deep,  and  large  enough  to  permit  the 
valve  to  be  turned.  Drop  a  little  emery  dust  in  this  hole. 
If  you  haven't  any  emery  dust,  scrape  some  grit  from  a 
whetstone.  If  you  have  no  whetstone,  put  some  fine  sand 
or  gritty  soil  in  the  hole,  put  the  valve  on  top  of  it,  put 
your  brace  on  the  valve  and  turn  it  vigorously  for  a  few 
minutes,  and  you  will  remove  all  roughness." 

*J.  H.  Maggard. 


(^  YOUNG  engineers'   GUIDE. 

Sometimes  the  burr  on  the  valve  comes  from  long  use ; 
but  the  above  treatment  will  make  it  as  good  as  new. 

INJECTORS. 

All  injectors  are  greatly  affected  by  conditions,  such  as 
the  lift,  the  steam,  pressure,  the  temperature  of  the  water, 
etc.  An  injector  will  not  use  hot  water  well,  if  at  all. 
As  the  lift  is  greater,  the  steam  pressure  required  to  start 
is  greater,  and  at  the  same  time  the  highest  steam  press- 
ure under  which  the  injector  will  work  at  all  is  greatly 
decreased.  The  same  applies  to  the  lifting  of  warm 
water:  the  higher  the  temperature,  the  greater  the  steam 
pressure  required  to  start,  and  the  less  the  steam  pressure 
which  can  be  used  as  a  maximum. 

It  is  important  for  the  sake  of  economy  to  use  the  right 
sized  injector.  Before  buying  a  new  injector,  find  out 
first  how  much  water  you  need  for  your  boiler,  and  then 
buy  an  injector  of  about  the  capacity  required,  though  of 
course  an  injector  must  always  have  a  maximum  capacity 
in  excess  of  what  will  be  required. 

If  the  feed  water  is  cold,  a  good  injector  ought  to  start 
with  25  pounds  steam  pressure  and  work  up  to  150 
pounds. for  a  2-foot  lift.  If  the  lift  is  eight  feet,  it  will 
start  at  30  pounds  and  work  up  to  130.  If  the  water  is 
heated  to  100  degrees  Fahrenheit  it  will  start  for  a  2- foot 
lift  with  26  pounds  and  work  up  to  12a  pounds,  or  for  an 
8-foot  Hft,  it  will  start  with  33  pounds  and  work  up  to 
100.  These  figures  apply  to  the  single  tube  injector.  The 
double  tube  injector  should  work  from  14  pounds  to  250, 
and  from  15  to  210  under  same  conditions  as  above.  The 
double  tube  injector  is  not  commonly  used  on  farm  en- 
gines, however. 

Care  should  be  taken  that  the  injector  is  not  so  near  the 
boiler  as  to  become  heated,  else  it  will  not  work.  If  it 
gets  too  hot,  it  must  be  cooled  by  pouring  cold  water  on 
the  outside,  first  having  covered  it  with  a  cloth  to  hold  the 
water.  If  the  injector  is  cool,  and  the  steam  pressure  and 
lift  are  all  right,  and  still  the  injector  does  not  work,  you 
may  be  sure  there  is  some  obstruction  somewhere.  Shut 
off  the  steam  from  the  boiler,  and  run  a  fine  wire  down 


HOW   TO   M'ANAQG  A  BOILER.  6j 

through  the  cone  valve  or  cyHnder  valve,  after  having 
removed  the  cap  or  plug  nut. 

Starting  an  injector  always  requires  some  skill,  and  in- 
jectors differ.  Some  start  by  manipulating  the  steam 
valve  ;  some  require  that  the  steam  be  turned  on  first,  and 
then  the  water  turned  on  in  just  the  right  amount,  usually 
with  a  quick  short  twist  oi  the  supply  valve.  Often  some 
patience  is  required  to  get  just  the  right  turn  on  it  so  that 
it  will  start. 

Of  course  you  must  be  sure  that  all  joints  are  air-tight, 
else  the  injector  will  not  work  under  any  conditions. 

Never  use  an  injector  where  a  pump  can  be  used,  as 
the  injector  is  much  more  wasteful  of  steam.  It  is  for  an 
emergency  or  to  throw  water  in  a  boiler  when  engine  is 
not  running. 

No  lubricator  is  needed  on  an  injector. 

THE  HEATER. 

The  construction  of  the  heater  has  already  been  ex- 
plained. It  has  two  check  valves,  one  on  the  side  of  the 
pump  and  one  on  the  side  of  the  boiler,  both  opening 
toward  the  boiler.  The  exhaust  steam  is  usually  at  a 
temperature  of  215  to  220  degrees  when  it  enters  the  heat- 
er chamber,  and  heats  the  water  nearly  or  quite  to  boiling 
point  as  it  passes  through.  The  injector  heats  the  water 
almost  as  hot. 

The  heater  requires  little  attention,  and  the  check  valves 
seldom  get  out  of  order. 

The  pump  is  to  be  used  when  the  engine  is  running, 
and  the  injectpr  when  the  engine  is  closed  down.  The 
pump  is  the  more  economical ;  but  when  the  engine  is  not 
working  the  exhaust  steam  is  not  sufficient  to  heat  the 
water  in  the  heater;  and  pumping  cold  water  into  the 
boiler  will  quickly  bring  down  the  pressure  and  injure  the 
boiler. 

ECONOMICAL  FIRING. 

The  management  of  the  fire  is  one  of  the  most  import- 
ant things  in  running  a  steam  engine.  On  it  depend 
two  things  of  the  greatest  consequence — success  in  getting 
up  steam  quickly  and  keeping  it  at  a  steady  pressure  un- 


68  YOUNG  ENGINEERS*   GUIDE. 

der  all  conditions ;  and  economy  in  the  use  of  fuel.  An 
engineer  who  understands  firing  in  the  most  economical 
way  will  probably  save  his  wages  to  his  employer  over 
the  engineer  who  is  indifferent  or  unscientific  about  it. 
Therefore  the  young  engineer  should  give  the  subject 
great  attention. 

First,  let  us  consider  firing  with  coal.  All  expert  en- 
gineers advise  a  "thin"  fire.  This  means  that  you  should 
have  a  thin  bed  of  coals,  say  about  four  inches  thick,  all 
over  the  grate.  There  should  be  no  holes  or  dead  places 
in  this,  for  if  there  are  any,  cold  air  will  short-circuit  into 
the  fire  flues  and  cool  off  the  boiler. 

The  best  way  of  firing  is  to  spread  the  coal  on  with  a 
small  hand  shovel,  a  very  little  at  a  time,  scattering  it  well 
over  the  fire.  Another  way,  recommended  by  some,  is 
to  have  a  small  pile  of  fresh  fuel  at  the  front  of  the  grate, 
pushing  it  back  over  the  grate  when  it  is  well  lighted.  To 
manage  this  well  will  require  some  practice  and  skill,  and 
for  a  beginner,  we  recommend  scattering  small  shovels- 
ful  all  over  the  fire.  All  lump  coal  should  be  broken  to  a 
uniform  size.  No  piece  larger  than  a  man's  fist  should 
be  put  in  a  firebox. 

Seldom  use  the  poker  above  the  fire,  for  nothing  has 
such  a  tendency  to  put  out  a  coal  fire  as  stirring  it  with  a 
poker  above.  And  when  there  is  a  good  glow  all  over  the 
grate  below,  the  poker  is  not  needed  below.  When  the 
grate  becomes  covered  with  dead  ashes,  they  should  be 
cautiously  but  fully  removed,  and  clinkers  must  be  lifted 
out  with  the  poker  from  above,  care  being  exercised  to 
cover  up  the  holes  with  live  coals. 

Hard  coal  if  used  should  be  dampened  before  being  put 
on  the  fire. 

When  the  fire  is  burning  a  little  too  briskly,  close  the 
draft  but  do  not  tamper  with  the  fire  itself.  Should  it 
become  important  on  a  sudden  emergency  to  check  the 
fire  at  any  time  quickly,  never  dash  water  upon  it,  but 
rather  throw  plenty  of  fresh  fuel  upon  it.  Fresh  fuel  al- 
ways lowers  the  heat  at  first.  If  all  drafts  are  closed 
tight,  it  will  lower  the  heat  considerably  for  quite  a  time. 

In  checking  a  fire,  it  must  'be  remembered  that  very 


HOW   TO    MANAGE   A   BOILER.  69 

sudden  cooling  will  almost  surely  crack  the  boiler.  If 
there  is  danger  of  an  explosion  it  may  be  necessary  to 
draw  the  fire  out  entirely ;  but  under  no  circumstances 
should  cold  water  be  thrown  on.  After  drawing  the  fire 
close  all  doors  and  dampers. 

FIRING   WITH   WOOD. 

Always  keep  the  fire  door  shut  as  much  as  possible,  as 
cold  air  thus  admitted  will  check  the  fire  and"  ruin  the 
boiler. 

Firing  with  wood  is  in  many  ways  the  exact  reverse  of 
firing  with  coal.  The  firebox  should  be  filled  full  of 
wood  at  all  times.  The  wood  should  be  thrown  in  in 
every  direction,  in  pieces  of  moderate  size,  and  as  it  burns 
away,  fresh  pieces  should  be  put  in  at  the  front  so  that 
they  will  get  lighted  and  ready  to  burn  before  being 
pushed  back  near  the  boiler.  It  often  helps  a  wood  fire, 
too,  to  stir  it  with  a  poker.  Wood  makes  much  less  ash 
than  coal,  and  what  little  accumulates  in  the  grate  will 
not  do  much  harm.  Sometimes  green  wood  will  not  burn 
because  it  gets  too  much  cold  air.  In  that  case  the  sticks 
should  be  packed  as  close  together  as  possible,  still  leav- 
ing a  place  for  the  air  to  pass.  Also  a  wood  fire,  espe- 
cially one  with  green  wood,  should  be  kept  up  to  a  high 
temperature  all  the  time ;  for  if  it  is  allowed  to  drop  down 
the  wood  will  suddenly  cease  to  burn  at  all. 

FIRING  WITH  STRAW. 

In  firing  with  straw  it  is  important  to  keep  the  shute  full 
of  straw  all  the  time  so  that  no  cold  air  can  get  in  on  top 
of  the  fire.  Don't  push  the  straw  in  too  fast,  either,  but 
keep  it  moving  at  a  uniform  rate,  with  small  forkfulls. 
Now  and  then  it  is  well  to  turn  the  fork  over  and  run  it 
down  into  the  fire  to  keep  the  fire  level.  Ashes  may  be 
allowed  to  fill  up  in  rear  of  ash  box,  but  fifteen  inches 
should  be  kept  clear  in  front  to  provide  draft.  The  brick 
arch  may  be  watched  from  the  side  opening  in  the  fire- 
box, and  should  show  a  continuous  stream  of  white  flame 
coming  over  it.  If  too  i-iuch  straw  is  forced  in,  that  will 
check  the  flame.     The  flame  should  never  be  checked.    If 


yo  YOUNG  engineers'  guide. 

damp  straw  gets  against  the  ends  of  the  flues,  it  should  be 
scraped  off  with  the  poker  from  side  door.  Clean  the 
tubes  well  once  a  day.  The  draft  must  always  be  kept 
strong  enough  to  produce  a  white  heat,  and  if  this  cannot 
be  done  otherwise,  a  smaller  nozzle  may  be  used  on  the 
exhaust  pipe ;  but  this  should  be  avoided  when  possible, 
since  it  causes  back  pressure  on  the  engine.  Never  let  the 
front  end  of  the  boiler  stand  on  low  ground.  Engine 
should  be  level,  or  front  end  high,  if  it  has  a  firebox  lo- 
comotive boiler ;  if  a  return  flue  boiler,  be  careful  to  keep 
it  always  level.  In  burning  straw  take  particular  notice 
that  the  spark  screen  in  stack  does  not  get  filled  up. 

the  ash  pit. 

In  burning  coal  it  is  exceedingly  important  that  the 
ashes  be  kept  cleaned  out,  as  the  hot  cinders  falling 
down  on  the  heap  of  ashes  almost  as  high  as  the  grate  will 
overheat  the  grate  in  a  very  short  time  and  warp  it  all  out 
of  shape,  so  ruining  it. 

With  wood  and  straw,  on  the  contrary,  an  accumulation 
of  ashes  will  often  help  and  will  seldom  do  any  harm,  be- 
cause no  very  hot  cinders  can  drop  down  below  the  grates, 
and  the  hottest  part  of  the  fire  is  some  distance  above  the 
grates. 

starting  a  fire. 

You  must  make  up  your  mind  that  it  will  take  half  an 
hour  to  an  hour  or  so  to  get  up  steam  in  any  boiler  that  is 
perfectly  cold.  The  metal  expands  and  shrinks  a  great 
deal  with  the  heat  and  cold,  and  a  sudden  application  of 
heat  would  ruin  a  boiler  in  a  short  time.  Hence  it  is 
necessary  for  reasons  of  engine  economy  to  make  changes 
of  temperature,  either  cooling  off  or  heating  up,  gradu- 
ally. 

First  see  that  there  is  water  in  the  boiler. 

Start  a  brisk  fire  with  pine  kindlings,  gradually  putting 
on  coal  or  wood,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  spreading  the 
fire  over  the  grate  so  that  all  parts  will  be  covered  with 
glowing  coals. 

When  you  have  15  or  20  pounds  of  steam,  start  the 


HOW   TO    MANAGE   A   BOILER.  '        71 

blower.  As  has  already  been  described,  the  blower  is  a 
pipe  with  a  nozzle  leading  from  the  steam  space  of  the 
boiler  to  the  smoke  stack,  and  fitted  with  a  globe  valve. 
The  force  of  the  steam  drives  the  air  out  of  the  stack, 
causing  a  vacuum,  which  is  immediately  filled  by  the  hot 
gases  from  the  firebox  coming  through  the  boiler  tubes. 
Little  is  to  be  gained  by  using  the  blower  with  less  than  15 
pounds  of  steam,  as  the  blower  has  so  little  strength  be- 
low that,  that  it  draws  oflf  about  as  much  steam  as  is  made 
and  nothing  is  gained. 

The  blower  is  seldom  needed  when  the  engine  is  work- 
ing, as  the  exhaust  steam  should  be  sufficient  to  keep  the 
fire  going  briskly.  If  it  is  not,  you  should  conclude  that 
something  is  the  matter.  There  are  times,  however,  when 
the  blower*  is  required  even  when  the  engine  is  going.  For 
example,,  if  you  are  working  with  very  light  load  and 
small  use  of  steam,  the  exhaust  may  be  insufficient  to  keep 
up  the  fire;  and  this  will  be  especially  true  if  the  fuel  is 
very  poor.  In  such  a  case,  turn  on  the  blower  very  slight- 
ly. But  remember  that  you  are  wasting  steam  if  you  can 
get  along  without  the  blower. 

Examine  the  nozzle  of  the  blower  now  and  then  to  see 
that  it  does  not  become  limed  up,  or  turned  so  as  to  direct 
the  steam  to  one  side  of  the  stack,  where  its  force  would 
be  wasted. 

Beware,  also,  of  creating  too  much  draft ;  for  too  much 
draft  will  use  up  fuel  and  make  little  steam. 

SMOKE. 

Coal  smoke  is  nothing  more  or  less  than  unburned  car- 
bon. The  more  smoke  you  get,  the  less  will  be  the  heat 
from  a  given  amount  of  fuel.  Great  clouds  of  black 
smoke  from  an  engine  all  the  time  are  a  very  bad  sign 
in  an  engineer.  They  show  that  he  does  not  know  how  to 
fire.  He  has  not  followed  the  directions  already  given,  to 
have  a  thin,  hot  fire,  with  few  ashes  under  his  grate.  In- 
stead, he  throws  on  great  shovels ful  of  coal  at  a  time, 
and  has  the  coal  up  to  the  firebox  door.  His  fuel  is  al- 
ways making  smoke,  which  soon  clogs  up  the  smoke  flues 
and  lessens  the  amount  of  steam  he  is  getting.    If  he  had 


72  YOUNG  ENGINEERS     GUIDE. 

kept  his  fire  very  *'thin,"  but  very  hot,  throwing  on  a 
small  hand  shovel  of  coal  at  a  time,  seldom  poking  his 
fire  except  to  lift  out  clinkers  or  clean  away  dead  ashes 
under  the  grate,  and  keeping  his  ashpit  free  from  ashes, 
there  would  be  only  a  little  puff  of  black  smoke  when  the 
fresh  coal  went  on,  and  then  the  smoke  would  quickly 
disappear,  while  the  fire  flues  would  burn  clean  and  not 
get  clogged  up  with  soot. 

It  is  important,  however,  to  keep  the  small  fire  flues  es- 
pecially well  cleaned  out  with  a  good  flue  cleaner ;  for  all 
accumulation  of  soot  prevents  the  heat  from  passing 
through  the  steel,  and  so  reduces  the  heating  capacity  of 
the  boiler.  Cleaning  the  tubes  with  a  steam  blower  is 
never  advisable,  as  it  forms  a  paste  on  the  tube  that  great- 
ly impairs  its  commodity. 

SPARKS. 

With  coal  there  is  little  danger  of  fires  caused  by  sparks 
from  the  engine.  What  sparks  there  are  are  heavy  and 
dead,  and  will  even  fall  on  a  pile  of  straw  without  setting 
it  on  fire.  On  a  very  windy  day,  however,  when  you  are 
running  your  engine  very  hard,  especially  if  it  is  of  the 
direct  locomotive  boiler  type,  you  want  to  be  careful  even 
with  coal. 

With  wood  it  is  very  different ;  and  likewise  with  straw. 
Wood  and  straw  sparks  are  always  dangerous,  and  an  en- 
gine should  never  be  run  for  threshing  with  wood  or 
straw  without  using  a  spark-arrester. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  when  coal  is  used  it  will  give 
out,  and  you  will  be  asked  to  finish  your  job  with  wood. 
In  such  a  case,  it  is  the  duty  of  an  engineer  to  state  fully 
and  frankly  the  danger  of  firing  with  wood  without  a 
spark  arrester,  and  he' should  go  on  only  when  ordered  to 
do  so  by  the  proprietor,  after  he  has  been  fully  warned. 
In  that  case  all  responsibility  is  shifted  from  the  engineer 
to  the  owner. 

THE  FUSIBLE  PLUG. 

The  careful  engineer  will  never  have  occasion  to  do 
anything  to  the  fusible  plug  except  to  clean  the  scale  oflF 


HOW    TO    MANAGE   A   BOILER.  73 

from  the  top  of  it  on  the  inside  of  the  boiler  once  a  week, 
and  put  in  a  fresh  plug  once  a  month.  It  is  put  in  merely 
as  a  precaution  to  provide  for  carelessness.  The  engineer 
who  allows  the  fusible  plug  to  melt  out  is  by  that  very  fact 
marked  as  a  careless  man,  and  ought  to  find  it  so  much 
the  harder  to  get  a  job. 

xAs  has  already  been  explained,  the  fusible  plug  is  a  plug 
filled  in  the  middle  with  some  metal  that  will  melt  at  a' 
comparatively  low  temperature.  So  long  as  it  is  covered 
with  water,  no  amount  of  heat  will  melt  it,  since  the  water 
conducts  the  heat  away  from  the  metal  and  never  allows 
it  to  rise  above  a  certain  temperature.  When  the  plug  is 
no  longer  covered  with  water,  however, — in  short,  when 
the  water  has  fallen  below  the  danger  line  in  the  boiler — 
the  metal  in  the  plug  will  fuse,  or  melt,  and  make  an  open- 
ing through  which  the  steam  will  blow  into  the  firebox 
and  put  out  the  fire.  However,  if  the  top  of  the  fusible 
plug  has  been  allowed  to  become  thickly  coated  with  scale, 
this  safety  precaution  may  not  work  and  the  boiler  may 
explode.  In  any  case  the  fusible  plug  is  not  to  be  de- 
pended on. 

At  the  same  time  a  good  engineer  will  take  every  pre- 
caution, and  one  of  these  is  to  keep  the  top  of  the  plug 
well  cleaned.  Also  he  will  have  an  extra  plug  all  ready 
and  filled  with  composition  metal,  to  put  in  should  the 
plug  in  the  boiler  melt  out.  Then  he  will  refill  the  old 
plug  as  soon  as  possible.  This  may  be  done  by  putting  a 
little  moist  clay  in  one  end  to  prevent  the  hot  metal  from 
running  through,  and  then  pouring  into  the  other  end  of 
the  plug  as  much  melted  metal  as  it  will  hold.  When  cold, 
tamp  down  solidly. 

LEAKY   FLUES. 

One  common  cause  of  leaky  flues  is  leaving  the  fire  door 
open  so  that  currents  of  cold  air  will  rush  in  on  the  heated 
flues  and  cause  them,  or  some  other  parts  of  the  boiler,  to 
contract  too  suddenly.  The  best  boiler  made  may  be 
ruined  in  time  by  allowing  cold  currents  of  air  to  strike 
the  heated  interior.     ( )nce  or  twice  will  not  do  it ;  but  con- 


74  YOUNG  ENGINEERS    GUIDE. 

tinually  leaving  the  fire  door  open  ^1  certainly  work 
mischief  in  the  end. 

Of  course,  if  flues  in  a  new  boiler  leak,  it  is  the  fault  of 
the  boiler  maker.  The  tubes  were  not  large  enough  to 
fill  the  holes  in  the  tube  sheets  properly.  But  if  a  boiler 
runs  for  a  season  or  so  and  then  the  flues  begin  to  leak, 
the  chances  are  that  it  is  due  to  the  carelessness  of  the  en- 
gineer. It  may  be  he  has  been  making  his  fires  too  hot ; 
it  may  be  leaving  the  firebox  door  open  ;  it  may  be  running 
the  boiler  at  too  high  pressure ;  it  may  be  blowing  out  the 
boiler  when  it  is  too  hot ;  or  blowing  out  the  boiler  when 
there  is  still  some  fire  in  the  firebox ;  it  may  be  due  to  lime 
encrusted  on  the  inside  of  the  tube  sheets,  causing  them 
to  overheat.  Flues  may  also  be  made  to  leak  by  pumping 
cold  water  into  the  boiler  when  the  water  inside  is  too  low  ; 
or  pouring  cold  water  into  a  hot  boiler  will  do  it.  Some 
engineers  blow  out  their  boilers  to  clean  them,  and  then 
being  in  a  hurry  to  get  to  work,  refill  them  while  the  metal 
is  hot.  The  flues  cannot  stand  this,  since  they  are  thinner 
than  the  shell  of  the  boiler  and  cool  much  more  quickly ; 
hence  they  will  contract  much  faster  than  the  rest  of  the 
boiler  and  something  has  to  come  loose. 

Once  a  flue  starts  to  leaking,  it  is  not  likely  to  stop  till 
it  has  been  repaired ;  and  one  leaky  flue  will  make  others 
leak. 

Now  what  shall  you  do  with  a  leaky  flue  ? 

To  repair  a  leaky  flue  you  should  have  a  flue  expander 
and  a  calking  tool,  with  a  light  hammer.  If  you  are 
small  enough  yon  will  creep  in  at  the  firebox  door  with  a 
candle  in  your  hand.  First,  clean  off  the  ends  of  the  flues 
and  flue  sheet  with  some  cotton  waste.  Then  force  the  ex- 
pander into  the  leaky  flue,  bringing  the  shoulder  well  up 
against  the  end  of  the  flue.  Then  drive  in  the  tapering 
pin.  Be  very  careful  not  to  drive  it  in  too  far,  for  if  you 
expand  the  flue  too  much,  you  will  strain  the  flue  sheet 
and  cause  other  flues  to  leak.  You  must  use  your  judg- 
ment and  proceed  cautiously.  It  is  better  to  make  two  or 
three  trials  than  to  spoil  your  boiler  by  bad.  work.  The 
roller  expander  is  preferable  to  the  Prosser  in  the  hand§ 


HOW   TO   MANAGE  A  BOILER.  75 

of  a  novice.  'Die  tube  should  be  expanded  only  enough 
to  stop  the  leak.     Farther  expanding  will  only  do  injury. 

When  you  think  the  flue  has  been  expanded  enough,  hit 
the  pin  a  side  blow  to  loosen  it.  Then  turn  the  expander 
a  quarter  round,  and  drive  in  the  pin  again.  Loosen  up 
and  continue  till  you  have  turned  the  expander  entirely 
around. 

Finally  remove  the  expander,  and  use  the  calking  tool 
to  bead  the  end.  It  is  best,  however,  to  expand  all  leaky 
flues  before  doing  any  beading. 

The  beading  is  done  by  placing  the  guide  or  gauge  in- 
side the  flue,  and  then  pounding  the  ends  of  the  flue  down 
against  the  flue  sheet  by  light  blows.  Be  very  careful  not 
to  bruise  the  flue  sheet  or  flues,  and  use  no  heavy  blows, 
nor  even  a  heavy  hammer.  Go  slowly  and  carefully 
around  the  end  of  each  flue;  and  if  you  have  done  your 
work  thoroughly  and  carefully  the  flues  will  be  all  right. 
But  you  should  test  your  boiler  before  steaming  up,  to 
make  sure  that  all  the  leaks  are  stopped,  especially  if  there 
have  been  bad  ones. 

There  are  various  ways  to  testing  a  boiler.  If  water- 
works are  handy,  connect  the  boiler  with  a  hydrant  and 
after  filling  the  boiler,  let  it  receive  the  hydrant  pressure. 
Then  examine  the  calked  flues  carefully,  and  if  you  see 
any  seeping  of  water,  use  your  header  lightly  till  the  water 
stops.  In  case  no  waterworks  with  good  pressure  are  at 
hand,  you  can  use  a  hydraulic  pump  or  a  good  force 
pump. 

The  amount  of  pressure  required  in  testing  a  boiler 
should  be  that  at  which  the  safety  valve  is  set  to  blow  off, 
say  no  to  130  lbs.     This  will  be  sufficient. 

If  you  are  in  the  field  with  no  hydrant  or  force  pump 
handy,  you  may  test  your  boiler  in  this  way :  Take  off 
the  safety  valve  and  fill  the  boiler  full  of  water  through 
the  safety  valve  opening.  Then  screw  the  safety  back  in 
its  place.  '  You  should  be  sure  that  every  bit  of  space  in 
the  boiler  is  filled  entirely  full  of  water,  with  all  openings 
tightly  closed.  Then  get  back  in  the  boiler  and  have  a 
bundle  of  straw  burned  under  the  firebox,  or  under  the 
waist  of  the  boiler,  so  that  at  some  point  the  water  will  be 


76  YOUNG   engineers'   GUIDE. 

slightly  heated.  This  will  cause  pressure.  If  your  safety 
valve  is  in  perfect  order,  you  will  know  as.  soon  as  water 
begins  to  escape  at  the  safety  valve  whether  your  flues  are 
calked  tight  enough  or  not. 

The  water  is  heated  only  a  few  degrees,  and  the  pres- 
sure is  cold  water  pressure.  In  very  cold  weather  this 
method  cannot  be  used,  however,  as  water  has  no  expan- 
sive force  within  five  degrees  of  freezing. 

The  above  methods  are  not  intended  for  testing  the 
safety  of  a  boiler,  but  only  for  testing  for  leaky  flues.  If 
you  wish  to  have  your  boiler  tested,  it  is  better  to  get  an 
expert  to  do  it. 


CHAPTER  V. 

HOW  TO  MANAGE  A  TRACTION  ENGINE. 

A  traction  engine  is  usually  the  simplest  kind  of  an  en- 
gine made.  If  it  were  not,  it  would  require  a  highly  ex- 
pert engineer  to  run  it,  and  this  would  be  too  costly  for  a 
farmer  or  thresherman  contractor.  Therefore  the  build- 
ers of  traction  engines  make  them  of  the  fewest  possible 
parts,  and  in  the  most  durable  and  simple  style.  Still, 
even  the  simplest  engine  requires  a  certain  amount  of 
brains  to  manage  it  properly,  especially  if  you  are  to  get 
the  maximum  of  work  out  of  it  at  the  lowest  cost. 

If  the  engine  is  in  perfect  order,  about  all  you  have  to 
do  is  to  see  that  all  bearings  are  properly  lubricated,  and 
that  the  automatic  oiler  is  in  good  working  condition. 
But  as  soon  as  an  engine  has  been  used  for  a  certain  time, 
there  will  be  wear,  which  will  appear  first  in  the  journals, 
boxes  and  valve,  and  it  is  the  first  duty  of  a  good  engineer 
to  adjust  these.  To  adjust  them  accurately  requires  skill ; 
and  it  is  the  possession  of  that  skill  that  goes  to  make  a 
real  engineer. 

Your  first  attention  will  probably  be  required  for  the 
cross-head  and  crank  boxes  or  brasses.  The  crank  box 
and  pin  will  probably  wear  first ;  but  both  the  cross-head 
and  crank  boxes  are  so  nearly  alike  that  what  is  said  of 
one  will  apply  to  the  other. 

You  will  find  the  wrist  box  in  two  parts.  In  a  new  en- 
gine these  parts  do  not  quite  meet.  There  is  perhaps  ai 
eighth  of  an  inch  waste  space  between  them.  They  are 
brought  up  to  the  box  in  most  farm  engines  by  a  wedge- 
shaped  key.  This  should  be  driven  down  a  little  at  a 
time  as  the  boxes  wear,  so  as  to  keep  them  snug  up  to  the 
pin,  though  not  too  tight. 

You  continue  to  drive  in  the  key  and  tighten  up  the 
boxes  as  they  wear  until  the  two  halves  come  tight  to- 


78  YOUNG  engineers'   GUIDE. 

gather.  Then  you  can  no  longer  accomplish  anything  in 
this  way. 

When  the  brasses  have  worn  so  that  they  can  be  forced 
no  closer  together,  they  must  be  taken  off  and  the  ends  of 
them  filed  where  they  come  together.  File  off  a  sixteenth 
of  an  inch  from  each  end.  Do  it  with  care,  and  be  sure 
you  get  the  ends  perfectly  even.  When  you  have  done 
this  you  will  have  another  eighth  of  an  inch  to  allow  for 
wear. 

Now,  by  reflection  you  will  see  that  as  the  wrist  box 
wears,  and  ihe  wedge-shaped  key  is  driven  in,  the  pitman 
(or  piston  arm)  is  lengthened  to  the  amount  that  the  half 
of  the  box  farthest  from  the  piston  has  worn  away.  When 
the  brasses  meet,  this  will  amount  to  one-sixteenth  of  an 
inch. 

Now  if  you  file  the  ends  off  and  the  boxes  wear  so  as 
to  come  together  once  more,  the  pitman  will  have  been 
shortened  one-eighth  of  an  inch ;  and  pretty  soon  the  clear- 
ance of  the  piston  in  the  cylinder  will  have  been  offset, 
and  the  engine  will  begin  ta  pound.  In  any  case,  the  clear- 
ance at  one  end  of  the  cylinder  will  be  one-sixteenth  or  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  less,  and  in  the  other  end  one-sixteenth 
or  one-eighth  of  an  inch  more.  When  this  is  the  case  you 
will  find  that  the  engine  is  not  working  well. 

To  correct  this,  when  you  file  the  brasses  either  of  the 
cross-head  box  or  the  crank  box  you  must  put  in  some 
filling  back  of  the  brass  farthest  from  the  piston,  suf- 
ficient to  equalize  the  wear  that  has  taken  place,  that  is, 
one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  each  time  you  have  to  file  off  a 
sixteenth  of  an  inch.  This  filling  may  be  some  flat  pieces 
of  tin  or  sheet  copper,  commonly  called  shims,  and  the 
process  is  called  shimming.  As  to  the  front  half  of  the 
box,  no  shims  are  required,  since  the  tapering  key  brings 
that  box  up  to  its  proper  place. 

Great  care  must  be  exercised  when  driving  in  the 
tapering  key  or  wedge  to  tighten  up  the  boxes,  not  to 
drive  it  in  too  hard.  Many  engineers  think  this  is  a  sure 
remedy  for  ''knocking"  in  an  engine,  and  every  time 
they  hear  a  knock  they  drive  in  the  crank  box  key.  Often 
the  knock  is  from  some  other  source,  such  as  from  a  loose 


HOW  TO  MANAGE  AN  ENGINE.  79 

fly  wheel,  or  the  Hke.  Your  ear  is  Hkely  to  deceive  you ; 
for  a  knock  from  any  part  of  an  engine  is  likely  to  sound 
as  if  it  came  from  the  crank  box.  If  you  insist  on  driv- 
ing in  the  key  too  hard  and  too  often,  you  will  ruin  your 
engine. 

In  tightening  up  a  key,  first  loosen  the  set  screw  that 
holds  the  key;  then  drive  down  the  key  till  you  think  it 
is  tight ;  then  drive  it  back  again,  and  this  time  force  it 
down  with  your  fist  as  far  as  you  can.  By  using  your 
fist  in  this  way  after  you  have  once  driven  the  pin  in 
tight  and  loosened  it  again  you  may  be  pretty  certain 
you  are  not  going  to  get  it  so  tight  it  will  cause  the  box 
to  heat. 

WHAT  CAUSES  AN   ENGINE  TO  KNOCK. 

The  most  common  sign  that  something  is  loose  about 
an  engine  is  ''knocking,"  as  it  is  called.  If  any  box  wears 
a  little  loose,  or  any  wheel  or  the  like  gets  a  trifle  loose, 
the  engine  will  begin  to  knock. 

When  an  engine  begins  to  knock  or  run  hard,  it  is  the 
duty  of  the  engineer  to  locate  the  knock  definitely.  He 
must  not  guess  at  it.  When  he  has  studied  the  problem 
out  carefully,  and  knows  where  the  knock  is,  then  he  may 
proceed  to  remedy  it.  Never  adjust  more  than  one  part 
at  a  time. 

As  we  have  said,  a  knock  is  usually  due  to  looseness 
somewhere.  The  journals  of  the  main  shaft  may  be  loose 
and  cause  knocking.  They  are  held  in  place  by  set  bolts^ 
and  jam  nuts,  and  are  tightened  by  simply  screwing  up 
the  nuts.  But  a  small  turn  of  a  nut  may  make  the  box  so 
tight  it  will  begin  to  heat  at  once.  Great  care  should  be 
taken  in  tightening  up  such  a  box  to  be  sure  not  to  get  it 
too  tight.  Once  a  box  begins  to  cut,  it  should  be  taken 
out  and  thoroughly  cleaned. 

Knocking  may  be  due  to  a  loose  eccentric  yoke.  There 
is  packing  between  the  two  halves  of  the  yoke,  and  to 
tighten  up  you  must  take  out  a  thin  layer  of  this  packing. 
But  be  careful  not  to  take  out  too  much,  or  the  eccentric 
will  stick  and  begin  to  slip. 

Another  cause  of  knocking  is  the  piston  rod  loose  in 


8o  YOUNG  engineers'  GUIDE. 

the  cross-head.  If  the  piston  rod  is  keyed  to  the  cross- 
head  it  is  less  hable  to  get  loose  than  if  it  were  fastened 
by  a  nut ;  but  if  the  key  continues  to  get  loose,  it  will  be 
best  to  replace  it  with  a  new  one. 

Unless  the  piston  rod  is  kept  tight  in  the  cross-head, 
there  is  liability  of  a  bad  crack.  A  small  strain  will  bring 
the  piston  out  of  the  cross-head  entirely,  when  the  chances 
are  you  will  knock  out  one  or  both  cylinder-heads.  If  a 
nut  is  used,  there  will  be  the  same  danger  if  it  comes  off. 
It  should  therefore  be  carefully  watched.  The  best  way 
is  to  train  the  ear  to  catch  any  usual  sound,  when  loosen- 
ing of  the  key  or  nut  will  be  detected  at  once. 

Another  source  of  knocking  is  looseness  of  the  cross- 
head  in  the  guides.  Provision  is  usually  made  for  taking 
up  the  wear;  but  if  there  is  not,  you  can  take  off  the 
guides  and  file  them  or  have  them  planed  off.  You  should 
take  care  to  see  that  they  are  kept  even,  so  that  they  will 
'  wear  smooth  with  the  crosshead  shoes. 

If  the  fly-wheel  is  in  the  least  loose  it  will  also  cause 
knocking,  and  it  will  puzzle  you  not  a  little  to  locate  it. 
It  may  appear  to  be  tight ;  but  if  the  key  is  the  least  bit 
too  narrow  for  the  groove  in  the  shaft,  it  will  cause  an  en- 
gine to  bump  horribly,  very  much  as  too  much  "lead" . 
will. 

LEAD. 

We  have  already  explained  what  "lead"  is.  It  is  open- 
ing of  the  port  at  either  end  of  the  steam  cylinder  allowed 
by  the  valve  when  the  engine  is  on  a  dead  centre.  To  find 
out  what  the  lead  is,  the  cover  of  the  steam  chest  must  be 
taken  off,  and  the  engine  placed  at  each  dead  centre  in 
succession.  If  the  lead  is  greater  at  one  end  than  it  is  at 
the  other,  the  valve  must  be  adjusted  to  equalize  it.  As  a 
rule  the  engine  is  adjusted  with  a  suitable  amount  of  lead 
if  it  is  equalized.  The  correct  amount  of  lead  varies  with 
the  engine  and  with  the  port  opening.  If  the  port  opening 
is  long  and  narrow,  the  lead  should  obviously  be  less  than 
if  the  port  is  short  and  wide. 

If  the  lead  is  insufficient,  there  will  not  be  enough  steam 
let  into  the  cylinder  for  cushion,  and  the  engine  will 
knock.    If.  there  is  too  much  lead  the  speed  of  the  engine 


HOW  TO  MANAGE  AN   ENGINE.  8l 

will  be  lessened,  and  it  will  not  do  the  work  it  ought.    To 
adjust  the  lead  de  novo  is  by  no  means  an  easy  task. 

HOW  TO  SET  A  SIMPLE  VALVE. 

In  order  to  set  a  valve  the  engine  must  be  brought  to 
a  dead  centre.  This  cannot  be  done  accurately  by  the 
eye.  An  old  engineer*  gives  the  following  directions  for 
finding  the  dead  centre  accurately.  Says  he :  "First  pro- 
vide yourself  with  a  'tram.'  This  is  a  rod  of  one-fourth 
inch  iron  about  eighteen  inches  long,  with  two  inches  at 
one  end  bent  over  to  a  sharp  angle.  Sharpen  both  ends 
to  a  point.  Fasten  a  block  of  hard  wood  somewhere  near 
the  face  of  the  fly-wheel,  so  that  when  the  straight  end 
of  your  tram  is  placed  at  a  definite  point  in  the  block,  the 
hooked  end  will  reach  the  crown  of  the  fly-wheel.  The 
block  must  be  held  firmly  in  its  place,  and  the  tram  must 
always  touch  it  at  exactly  the  same  point. 

''You  are  now  ready  to  set  about  finding  the  dead  cen- 
tre. In  doing  this,  remember  to  turn  the  fly-wheel  al- 
ways in  the  same  direction. 

"Bring  the  engine  over  till  it  nearly  reaches  one  of  the 
dead  centres,  but  not  quite.  Make  a  distinct  mark  across 
the  cross-head  and  guides.  Also  go  around  to  the  fly- 
wheel, and  placing  the  straight  end  of  the  tram  at  the 
selected  point  on  the  block  of  wood,  make  a  mark  across 
the  crown  or  centre  of  face  of  the  fly-wheel.  Now  turn 
your  engine  past  the  centre,  and  on  to  a  point  at  which 
the  mark  on  the  cross  head  will  once  more  exactly  corre- 
spond with  the  line  on  the  guides,  making  a  single 
straight  line.  Once  more  place  the  tram  as  l3efore  and 
make  another  mark  across  the  crown  of  the  fly-wheel.  By 
use  of  dividers,  find  the  exact  centre  between  the  two 
marks  made  on  the  fly-wheel,  and  mark  this  point  dis- 
tinctly with  a  centre  punch.  Now  bring  the  fly-wheel 
to  the  point  where  the  tram,  set  with  its  straight  end  at 
the  required  point  on  the  block  of  wood,  will  touch  this 
point  with  the  hooked  end,  and  you  will  have  one  of  the 
dead  centres. 

*J.  H.  Maggard. 


82  YOUNG  engineers'  GUIDE. 

"Turn  the  engine  over  and  proceed  in  the  same  way  to 
find  the  other  dead  centre." 

Now,  setting  the  engine  on  one  of  the  dead  centres,  re- 
move the  cover  of  the  steam  chest  and  proceed  to  set 
your  valve. 

Assuming  that  the  engine  maker  gave  the  valve  the 
proper  amount  of  lead  in  the  first  place,  you  can  proceed 
on  the  theory  that  it  is  merely  necessary  to  equalize  the 
lead  at  both  ends.  Assume  some  convenient  lead,  as  one- 
sixteenth  of  an  inch,  and  set  the  valve  to  that.  Then  turn 
the  engine  over  and  see  if  the  lead  at  the  other  end  is  the 
same.  If  it  is  the  same,  you  have  set  the  valve  correctly. 
If  it  is  less  at  the  other  end,  you  may  conclude  that  the 
lead  at  both  ends  should  be  less  than  one-sixteenth  of  an 
inch,  and  must  proceed  to  equalize  it.  This  you  can  do 
by  fitting  into  the  open  space  a  little  wedge  of  wood, 
changing  the  valve  a  little  until  the  wedge  goes  in  to  just 
the  same  distance  at  each  end.  Then  you  may  know  that 
the  lead  at  one  end  is  the  same  as  at  the  other  end.  You 
can  mark  the  wedge  for  forcing  it  against  the  metal,  or 
mark  it  against  the  seat  of  the  valve  with  a  pencil. 

The  valve  is  set  by  loosening  the  set  screws  that  hold 
the  eccentric  on  the  shaft.  When  these  are  loosened  up 
the  valve  may  be  moved  freely.  When  it  is  correctly  set 
the  screws  should  be  tightened,  and  the  relative  position 
of  the  eccentric  on  the  shaft  may  be  permanently  marked 
by  setting  a  cold  chisel  so  that  it  will  cut  into  the  shaft 
and  the  eccentric  at  the  same  time  and  giving  it  a  smart 
blow  with  the  hammer,  so  as  to  make  a  mark  on  both 
the  eccentric  and  the  shaft.  Should  your  eccentric  slip 
at  any  time  in  the  future,  you  can  set  your  valve  by  sim- 
ply bringing  the  mark  on  the  eccentric  so)  that  it  will 
correspond  with  the  mark  on  the  shaft.  Many  engines 
have  such  a  mark  made  when  built,  to  facilitate  setting 
a  valve  should  the  eccentric  become  loose. 

These  directions  apply  only  to  setting  the  valve  of  a 
single  eccentric  engine. 

HOW  TO  SET  A  VALVE  ON  A  DOUBLE  ECCENTRIC  ENGINE. 

In  setting  a  valve  on  a  reversible  or  double  eccentric 
engine,  the  link  may  cause  confusion,  and  you  may  be 


tiOW  to  MANAGE  AN  ENGINE.  S3 

trying  to  set  the;  yalve  to  run  one  way  when  the  engine  is 
set  to  run  the  other. 

The  valve  on  such  an  engine  is  exactly  the  same  as  on 
a  single  eccentric  engine.  Set  the  reverse  lever  for  the 
engine  to  go  forward.  Then  set  the  valve  exactly  as  with 
a  single  eccentric  engine.  When  you  have  done  so,  tighten 
the  eccentric  screws  so  that  they  will  hold  temporarily, 
and  set  the  reverse  lever  for  the  engine  to  go  backward. 
Then  put  the  engine  on  dead  centres  and  see  if  the  valve 
is  all  right  at  both  ends.  If  it  is,  you  may  assume  that  it 
is  correctly  set,  and  tighten  eccentric  screws,  marking  both 
eccentrics  as  before. 

As  we  have  said,  most  engines  are  marked  in  the  fac- 
tory, so  that  it  is  not  a  difficult  matter  to  set  the  valves, 
it  being  necessary  only  to  bring  the  eccentric  around 
so  that  the  mark  on  it  will  correspond  with  the  mark  on 
the  shaft. 

You  can  easily  tell  whether  the  lead  is  the  same  at  both 
ends  by  listening  to  the  exhaust.  If  it  is  longer  at  one 
end  than  the  other,  the  valve  is  not  properly  set. 

SLIPPING  OF   THE   ECCENTRIC  OR  VALVE. 

If  the  eccentric  slips  the  least  bit  it  may  cause  the 
engine  to  stop,  or  to  act  very  queerly.  Therefore  the 
marks  on  the  shaft  and  on  the  eccentric  should  be  watched 
closely,  and  of  course  all  grease  and  dirt  should  be  kept 
wiped  off,  so  that  they  can  be  seen  easily.  Then  the 
jam  nuts  should  be  tightened  up  a  little  from  time  to 
time. 

If  the  engine  seems  to  act  strangely,  and  yet  the  eccen- 
trics are  all  right,  look  at  the  valve  in  the  steam  chest. 
If  the  valve  stem  has  worked  loose  from  the  valve,  trouble 
will  be  caused.  It  may  be  held  in  place  by  a  nut,  and  the 
nut  may  work  off;  or  the  valve  may  be  held  by  a  clamp 
and  pin,  and  the  pin  may  work  loose.  Either  will  cause 
loss  of  motion,  and  perhaps  a  sudden  stopping  of  the 
engine. 

USE    OF    THE    CYLINDER    STEAM    COCKS. 

It  is  a  comparatively  simple  matter  to  test  a  steam 
cylinder  by  use  of  the  cylinder  cocks.     To  do  this,  open 


§4  YOUNG  engineers*  GUlDfi. 

both  cocks,  place  the  engine  on  the  forward  center,  and 
turn  on  a  little  steam.  If  the  steam  blows  out  at  the 
forward  cock,  we  may  judge  that  our  lead  is  all  right. 
Now  turn  the  engine  to  the  back  center  and  let  on  the 
steam.  It  should  blow  out  the  same  at  the  back  cock.  A 
little  training  of  the  ear  will  show  whether  the  escape  of 
steam  is  the  same  at  both  ends.  Then  reverse  the  engine, 
set  it  on  each  center  successfully,  and  notice  whether  the 
steam  blows  out  from  one  cock  at  a  time  and  in  the  same 
degree  of  force. 

If  the  steam  blows  out  of  both  cocks  at  the  same  time, 
or  out  of  one  cock  on  one  center,  but  not  out  of  the 
other  cock  on  its  corresponding  center,  we  may  know 
something  is  wrong.  The  valve  does  not  work  prop- 
erly. 

We  will  first  look  at  the  eccentrics  and  see  that  they 
are  all  right.  If  they  are,  we  must  open  the  steam  chest, 
first  turning  off  all  steam.  Probably  we  shall  find  that 
the  valve  is  loose  on  the  va4ve  rod,  if  our  trouble  was 
that  the  steam  blew  out  of  the  cock  but  did  not  out  of 
the  other  when  the  engine  was  on  the  opposite  center. 

If  our  trouble  was  that  steam  blew  out  of  both  cocks 
at  the  same  time,  we  may  conclude  either  that  the  cylinder 
rings  leak  or  else  the  valve  has  cut  its  seat.  It  will  be 
a  little  difficult  to  tell  which  at  first  sight.  In  any  case 
it  is  a  bad  thing,  for  it  means  loss  of  power  and  waste  of 
steam  and  fuel.  To  tell  just  where  the  trouble  is  you 
must  take  off  the  cylinder  head,  after  setting  the  engine 
on  the  forward  center.  Let  in  a  little  steam  from  the 
throttle.  If  it  blows  through  around  the  rings,  the 
trouble  is  with  them;  but  if  it  blows  through  the  valve 
port,  the  trouble  is  with  the  valve  and  valve  seat. 

If  the  rings  leak  you  must  get  a  new  set  if  they  are  of 
the  self-adjusting  type.  But  if  they  are  of  the  spring  or 
adjusting  type  you  can  set  them  out  yourself;  but  few 
engines  now  use  the  latter  kind  of  rings,  so  a  new  pair 
will  probably  be  required. 

If  the  trouble  is  in  the  valve  and  valve  seat,  you  should 
take  the  valve  out  and  have  the  seat  planed  down,  and 
the  valve  fitted  to  the  seat.    This  should  always  be  done 


HOW  TO  MANAGE  AN   ENGINE.  85 

by  a  skilled  mechanic  fully  equipped  for  such  work,  as  a 
novice  is  almost  sure  to  make  bad  work  of  it.  The  valve 
seat  and  valve  must  be  scraped  down  by  the  use  of  a  flat 
piece  of  very  hard  steel,  an  eighth  of  an  inch  thick  and 
about  3  by  4  inches  in  size.  The  scraping  edge  must  be 
absolutely  straight.  It  will  be  a  slow  and  tedious  process, 
and  a  little  too  much  scraping  on  one  side  or  the  other 
will  prevent  a  perfect  fit.  Both  valve  and  valve  seat  must 
be  scraped  equally.  Novices  sometimes  try  to  reseat  a 
valve  by  the  use  of  emery.  This  is  very  dangerous  and  is 
sure  to  ruin  the  valve,  as  it  works  into  the  pores  of  the 
iron  and  causes  cutting. 

LUBRICATION. 

A  knowledge  of  the  difference  between  good  oil  and 
poor  oil,  and  of  how  to  use  oil  arid  grease,  is  a  prime 
essential  for  an  engineer. 

First  let  us  give  a  little  attention  to  the  theory  of 
lubrication.  The  oil  or  grease  should  form  a  lining 
between  the  journal  and  its  pin  or  shaft.  It  is  in  the 
nature  of  a  slight  and  frictionless  cushion  at  all  points 
where  the  two  pieces  of  metal  meet. 

Now  if  oil  is  to  keep  its  place  between  the  bearing 
and  the  shaft  or  pin  it  must  stick  tight  to  both  pieces  of 
metal,  and  the  tighter  the  better.  If  the  oil  is  light  the 
forces  at  work  on  the  bearings  will  force  the  oil  away 
and  bring  the  metals  together.  As  soon  as  they  come 
together  they  begin  to  wear  on  each  other,  and  sometimes 
the  wear  is  very  rapid.  This  is  called  "cutting."  If  a 
little  sand  or  grit  gets  into  the  bearing,  that  will  help 
the  cutting  wonderfully,  and  more  especially  if  there  is 
no  grease  there. 

For  instance,  gasoline  and  kerosene  are  oils,  but  they 
are  so  light  they  will  not  stick  to  a  journal,  and  so  are 
valueless  for  lubricating.  Good  lubricating  oil  will  cost 
a  little  more  than  cheap  oil  which  has  been  mixed  with 
worthless  oils  to  increase  its  bulk  without  increasing  its 
cost.  The  higher  priced  oil  will  really  cost  less  in  the 
end,  because  there  is  a  larger  percentage  of  it  whith  will 


86  YOUNG  engineers'  guide. 

do  service.  A  good  engineer  will  have  it  in  his  contract 
that  he  is  to  be  furnished  with  good  oil. 

Now  an  engine  requires  two  different  kinds  of  oil,  one 
for  the  bearings,  such  as  the  crank  pin,  the  cross-head 
and  journals,  and  quite  a  different  kind  for  lubricating 
the  steam  cylinder. 

It  is  extremely  important  that  the  steam  cylinder  should 
be  well  lubricated ;  and  this  cannot  be  done  direct.  The 
oil  must  be  carried  into  the  valve  and  cylinder  with  steam. 
The  heat  of  the  steam,  moreover,  ranging  from  al^out  320 
degrees  Fahr.  for  90  lbs.  pressure  to  350  degrees  for 
125  lbs.  of  pressure,  will  quickly  destroy  the  efficacy  of  a 
poor  oil,  and  a  good  cylinder  oil  must  be  one  that  will 
stick  to  the  cylinder  and  valve  seat  under  this  high  tem- 
perature.   It  must  have  staying  qualities. 

The  link  reverse  is  one  of  the  best  for  its  purpose ;  but 
it  requires  a  good  quality  of  oil  on  the  valve  for  it  to 
work  well.  If  the  valve  gets  a  little  dry,  or  the  poor  oil 
used  does  not  serve  its  purpose  properly,  the  link  will  begin 
to  jump  and  pound.  This  is  a  reason  why  makers  are 
substituting  other  kinds  of  reverse  gear  in  many  ways 
not  as  good,  but  not  open  to  this  objection.  If  a  link 
reverse  begins  to  pound  when  you  are  using  good  oil,  and 
the  oiler  is  working  properly,  you  may  be  sure  something 
is  the  matter  with  the  valve  or  the  gear. 

A  good  engineer  will  train  his  ear  so  that  he  will  detect 
by  simply  listening  at  the  cylinder  whether  everything  is 
workingN  exactly  as  it  ought.  For  example,  the  exhaust 
at  each  end  of  the  cylinder,  which  you  can  hear  dis- 
tinctly, should  be  the  same  and  equal.  If  the  exhaust 
at  one  end  is  less  than  it  is  at  the  other,  you  may  know 
that  one  end  of  the  cylinder  is  doing  more  work  than 
the  other.  And  also  any  little  looseness  or  lack  of  oil 
will  signify  itself  by  the  peculiar  sound  it  will  cause. 

While  the  cylinder  requires  cylinder  oil,  the  crank, 
cross-head  and  journals  require  engine  oil,  or  hard  grease. 
The  use  of  hard  grease  is  rapidly  increasing,  and  it  is 
highly  to  be  recommended.  With  a  good  automatic 
spring  grease  cup  hard  grease  will  be  far  less  likely  to 
let  the  bearings  heat  than  common  oil  will.    At  the  same 


HOW  TO  MANAGE  AN  ENGINE.  87 

time  it  will  be  much  easier  to  keep  an  engine  clean  if  hard 
l^rease  is  used. 

An  old  engineer*  gives  the  following  directions  for 
fitting  a  grease  cup  on  a  box  not  previously  arranged  for 
one:  ''Remove  the  journal,  take  a  gouge  and  cut  a 
clean  groove  across  the  box,  starting  at  one  corner,  about 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  from  the  point  of  the  box,  and 
cut  diagonally  across,  coming  out  at  the  opposite  corner 
on  the  other  end  of  the  box.  Then  start  at  the  opposite 
corner  and  run  through  as  before,  crossing  the  first  groove 
in  the  center  of  the  box.  Groove  both  halves  of  the  box 
the  same,  being  careful  not  to  cut  out  at  either  end,  as 
this  will  allow  the  grease  to  escape  from  the  box  and 
cause  unnecessary  waste.  The  shimming  or  packing  in 
the  box  should  be  cut  so  as  to  touch  the  journal  at  both 
ends  of  the  box,  but  not  in  the  center  or  between  these 
two  points.  So  when  the  top  box  is  brought  down  tight 
this  will  form  another  reservoir  for  the  grease.  If  the 
box  is  not  tapped  directly  in  the  center  for  the  cup,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  cut  another  groove  from  where  it  is 
tapped  into  the  grooves  already  made.  A  box  prepared 
in  this  way  and  carefully  polished  inside,  will  require  little 
attention  if. you  use  good  grease." 

A  HOT   BOX. 

When  a  box  heats  in  the  least  degree,  it  is  a  sign  that 
for  lack  of  oil  or  for  some  other  reason  the  metals  are 
wearing  together. 

The  first  thing  to  do,  of  course,  is  to  see  that  the  box  is 
supplied  with  plenty  of  good  oil  or  grease. 

If  this  does  not  cause  the  box  to  cool  off,  take  it  apart 
and  clean  it  thoroughly.  Then  coat  the  journal  with  white 
lead  mixed  with  good  oil.  Great  care  should  be  exercised 
to  keep  all  dirt  or  grit  out  of  your  can  of  lead  and  away 
from  the  bearing. 

Replace  the  oil  or  grease  cup,  and  the  box  will  soon  cool 
down. 

*J.  H.  Maggard. 


YOUNG   ENGINEERS     GUIDE. 


THE  FRICTION  CLUTCH. 


STEVENS  CO.  FRICTION 
CLUTCH. 


Nearly  all  traction  engines  are  liow  provided  with  the 
friction  clutch  for  engaging  the  engine  with  the  propelling 
gear.     The  clutch  is  usually  provided  with  wooden  shoes, 

which  are  adjustable  as  they 
wear ;  and  the  clutch  is  thrown 
on  1:)y  a  lever,  conveniently  placed. 
Before  running  an  engine,  you 
must  make  sure  that  the  clutch 
shoes  are  properly  adjusted. 
Great  care  must  be  taken  to  be 
sure  that  both  shoes  will  come  in 
contact  with  the  friction  wheel 
at  the  same  instant ;  for  if  one 
shoe  touches  the  wheel  before 
the  other  the  clutch  will  probably 
slip. 

The  shoes  should  be  so  set  as  to  make  it  a  trifle  difficult 
to  draw  the  lever  clear  back. 

To  regulate  the  shoes  on  the  Rumely  engine,  for  exam- 
ple, first  throw  the  friction  in.  The  nut  on  the  top  of  the 
toggle  connecting  the  sleeve  of  the  friction  with  the  shoe 
must  then  be  loosened,  and  the  nut  below  the  shoe  tight- 
ened up,  forcing  the  shoe  toward  the  wheel.  Both  shoes 
should  be  carefully  adjusted  so  that  they  will  engage  the 
band  wheel  equally  and  at  exactly  the  same  time. 

To  use  the  friction  clutch,  first  start  the  engine,  throw- 
ing the  throttle  gradually  wide  open.  When  the  engine  is 
running  at  its  usual  speed,  slowly  bring  up  the  clutch  until 
the  gearing  is  fully  engaged,  letting  the  engine  start  slow- 
ly and  smoothly,  without  any  jar. 

Traction  engines  having  the  friction  clutch  are  also 
provided  with  a  pin  for  securing  a  rigid  connection,  to  be 
used  in  cases  of  necessity,  as  when  the  clutch  gets  broken 
or  something  about  it  gives  out,  or  you  have  difficulty  in 
making  it  hold  when  climbing  hills.  This  pin  is  a  simple 
round  or  square  pin  that  can  be  placed  through  a  hole  in 
one  of  the  spokes  of  the  band  wheel  until  it  comes  into  a 
similar  opening  in  the  friction  wheel.  When  the  pin  is 
taken  out,  so  as  to  disconnect  the  wheels,  it  must  be  en- 


HOW  TO  MANAGE  AN  ENGINE. 


89 


tirely  removed,  not  left  sticking  in  the  hole,  as  it  is  liable 
to  catch  in  some  other  part  of  the'  machinery. 

MISCELLANEOUS    SUGGESTIONS. 

Be  careful  not  to  open  the  throttle  valve  too  quickly,  or 
you  may  throw  off  the  driving  belt.  You  may  also  stir  up 
the  water  and  cause  it  to  pass  over  with  the  steam, 
starting  what  is  called  ''priming." 

Always  open  your  cylinder  cocks  when  you  stop,  to 


Friction  Clutch 

AULTMAN  &  TAYLOR  FRICTION  CLUTCH. 

make  sure  all  water  has  been  drained  out  of  the  cylinder ; 
and  see  that  they  are  open  when  you  start,  of  course  clos- 
ing them  as  soon  as  the  steam  is  let  in. 

When  you  pull  out  the  ashes  always  have  a  pail  of  water 
ready,  for  you  may  start  a  fire  that  will  do  no  end  of 
damage. 

If  the  water  in  your  boiler  gets  low  and  you  are  wait- 


90  YOUNG  engineers'  GUIDE. 

ing  for  the  tank  to  come  up,  don't  think  you  "can  keep 
on  a  little  longer,"  but  stop  your  engine  at  once.  It  is 
better  to  lose  a  little  time  than  run  the  risk  of  an  explo- 
sion that  will  ruin  your  reputation  as  an  engineer  and 
cause  your  employer  a  heavy  expense. 

Never  start  the  pump  when  the  water  in  the  boiler  is 
low. 

Be  sure  the  exhaust  nozzle  does  not  get  limed  up,  and 
be  sure  the  pipe  where  the  water  enters  the  boiler  from 
the  heater  is  not  limed  up,  or  you  may  split  a  heater  pipe 
or  knock  out  a  check  valve. 

Never  leave  your  engine  in  cold  weather  without  drain- 
ing off  all  the  water;  and  always  cover  up  your  engine 
when  you  leave  it. 

Never  disconnect  the  engine  with  a  leaky  throttle. 

Keep  the  steam  pressure  steady,  not  varying  more  than 
lo  to  15  lbs. 

If  called  on  to  run  an  old  boiler,  have  it  thoroughly 
tested  before  vou  touch  it. 

Always  close  your  damper  before  pulling  through  a 
stack  yard. 

Examine  every  bridge  before  you  pull  on  to  it. 

Do  not  stop  going  down  a  steep  grade. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

HANDLING  A  TRACTION  ENGINE  ON   THE  ROAD. 

It  is  something  of  a  trick  to  handle  a  traction  engine  on 
the  road.  The  novice  is  almost  certain  to  run  it  into  a 
ditch  the  first  thing,  or  get  stuck  on  a  hill,  or  in  a  sand 
patch  or  a  mudhole.  Some  attention  must  therefore  be 
paid  to  handling  a  traction  engine  on  the  road. 

In  the  first  place,  never  pull  the  throttle  open  with  a 
jerk,  nor  put  down  the  reverse  lever  with  a  snap.  Handle 
your  engine  deliberately  and  thoughtfully,  knowing  be- 
forehand just  what  you  wish  to  do  and  how  you  will  do  it. 
A  traction  engine  is  much  like  an  ox ;  try  to  goad  it  on 
too  fast  and  it  will  stop  and  turn  around  on  you.  It  does 
its  best  work  when  mpving  slowly  and  steadily,  and  sel- 
dom is  anything  gained  by  rushing. 

The  first  thing  for  an  engineer  to  learn  is  to  handle  his 
throttle.  When  an  engine  is  doing  work  the  throttle 
should  be  wide  open ;  but  on  the  road,  or  in  turning,  back- 
ing, etc.,  the  engineer's  hand  must  be  on  the  throttle  all 
the  time  and  he  must  exercise  a  nice  judgment  as  to  just 
how  much  steam  the  engine  will  need  to  do  a  certain 
amount  of  work.  This  the  novice  will  find  out  best  by 
opening  the  throttle  slowly,  taking  all  the  time  he  needs, 
and  never  allowing  any  one  to  hurry  him. 

As  an  engineer  learns  the  throttle,  he  gradually  comes 
to  have  confidence  in  it.  As  it  were,  he  feels  the  pulse  of 
the  animal  and  never  makes  a  mistake.  Such  an  engineer 
always  has  power  to  spare,  and  never  wastes  any  power. 
He  finds  that  a  little  is  often  much  better  than  too  much. 

The  next  thing  to  learn  is  the  steering  wheel.  It  has 
tricks  of  its  own,  which  one  must  learn  by  practice.  Most 
young  engineers  turn  the  wheel  altogether  too  much.  If 
you  let  your  engine  run  slowly  you  will  have  time  to  turn 
the  wheel  slowly,  and  accomplish  just  what  you  want  to 
do.    If  you  hurry  you  will  probably  have  to  do  your  work 

91 


92  YOUNG  ENGINEERS    GUIDE. 

all  over  again,  and  so  lose  much  more  time  in  the  end 
than  if  you  didn't  hurry. 

Always  keep  your  eyes  on  the  front  wheels  of  the  en- 
gine, and  do  not  turn  around  to  see  how  your  load  is  com- 
ing on.  Your  load  will  take  care  of  itself  if  you  manage 
the  front  wheels  all  right,  for  they  determine  where  you 
are  to  go. 

In  making  a  hard  turn,  especially,  go  slow.  Then  you 
will  run  no  chance  of  losing  control  of  your  engine,  and 
you  can  see  that  neither  you  nor  your  load  gets  into  a 
ditch. 

GETTING  INTO  A  HOLE. 

You  are  sure  sooner  or  later  to  get  into  a  hole  in  the 
road,  for  a  traction  engine  is  so  heavy  it  is  sure  to  find 
any  soft  spot  in  the  road  there  may  be. 

As  to  getting  out  of  a  hole,  observe  in  the  first  place 
that  you  must  use  your  best  judgment. 

First,  never:  let  the  drive  wheels  turn  round  without 
doing  any  work.  The  more  they  spin  round  without 
helping  you,  the  worse  it  will  be  for  you. 

Your  first  thought  must  be  to  give  the  drive  wheels 
something  they  can  climb  on,  something  they  can  stick 
to.  A  heavy  chain  is  perhaps  the  very  best  thing  you  can 
put  under  them.  But  usually  on  the  road  you  have  no 
chain  handy.  In  that  case,  you  must  do  what  you  can.  Old 
hay  or  straw  will  help  you ;  and  so  will  old  rails  or  any 
old  timber. 

Spend  your  time  trying  to  give  your  wheels  something 
to  hold  to,  rather  than  trying  to  pull  out.  When  the 
wheels  are  all  right,  the  engine  will  go  on  its  way  with- 
out any  trouble  whatever.  And  do  not  half  do  your* 
work  of  fixing  the  wheels  before  you  try  to  start.  See 
that  both  wheels  are  secure  before  you  put  on  a  pound  of 
steam.  Make  sure  of  this  the  first  time  you  try,  and  you 
will  save  time  in  the  end.  If  you  fix  one  wheel  and  don't 
fix  the  other,  you  will  probably  spoil  the  first  wheel  by 
starting  before  the  other  is  ready. 

Should  you  be  v/here  your  engine  will  not  turn,  then 
you  are  stuck  indeed.  You  must  lighten  your  load  or  dig 
a  way  out. 


HANDLING  ENGINE  ON  ROAD.  93 


BAD   BRIDGES. 

A  traction  engine  is  so  heavy  that  the  greatest  care 
must  be  exercised  in  crossing  bridges.  If  a  bridge  floor 
is  worn,  if  you  see  rotten  planks  in  it,  or  HabiHty  of 
holes,  don't  pull  on  to  that  bridge  without  taking  pre- 
cautions. 

The  best  precaution  is  to  carry  with  you  a  couple  oi 
planks  sixteen  feet  long,  three  inches  thick  in  the  middle, 
tapering  to  two  inches  at  the  ends ;  also  a  couple  of  planks 
eight  feet  long  and  two  inches  thick,  the  latter  for  culverts 
and  to  help  out  on  long  bridges. 

Before  pulling  on  to  a  bad  looking  bridge,  lay  down 
your  planks,  one  for  each  pair  of  wheels  of  the  engine 
to  run  on.  Be  exceedingly  careful  not  to  let  the  engine 
drop  off  the  edge  of  these  planks  on  the  way  over,  or  pass 
over  the  ends  on  to  the  floor  of  the  bridge.  If  one  pair 
of  planks  is  too  short,  use  your  second  pair. 

Another  precaution  which  it  is  wise  to  take  is  to  carry 
fifty  feet  of  good,  stout  hemp  rope,  and  when  you  come  to 
a  shaky  bridge,  attach  your  separator  to  the  engine  by 
this  rope  at  full  length,  so  that  the  engine  will  have 
crossed  the  bridge  before  the  weight  of  the  separator 
comes  upon  it. 

Cross  a  bad  bridge  very  slowly.  Nothing  will  be  gained 
by  hurrying.  There  should  especially  be  no  sudden  jerks 
or  starts. 

SAND   PATCHES. 

A  sandy  road  is  an  exceedingly  hard  road  to  pull  a 
load  over. 

In  the  first  place,  don't  hurry  over  sand.  If  you  do 
you  are  liable  to  break  the  footing  of  the  wheels,  and 
then  you  are  gone. 

In  the  second  place,  keep  your  engine  as  steady  and 
straight  as  possible,  so  that  both  wheels  will  always  have 
an  equal  and  even  bearing.  They  are  less  liable  to  slip  if 
you  do.  It  is  useless  to  try  to  "wiggle"  over  a  sand  patch. 
Slow,  steady,  and  even  is  the  rule. 

If  your  wheels  slip  in  sand,  a  bundle  of  straw  or  hay, 


94  YOUNG  ENGINEERS*  GUIDE. 

especially  old  hay,  will  be  about  the  best  thing  to  give 
themi  a  footing. 

HILLS. 

In  climbing  hills  take  the  same  advice  we  have  given 

•you  all  along:     Go  slow.     Nothing  is  gained  by  rushing 

at  a  hill  with  a  steam  engine.    Such  an  engine  works  best 

when  its  force  is  applied  steadily  and  evenly,  a  little  at  a 

time. 

If  you  have  a  friction  clutch,  as  you  probably  will 
have,  you  should  be  sure  it  is  in  good  working  order  be- 
fore you  attempt  to  climb  hills.  It  should  be  adjusted  to 
a  nicety,  as  we  have  already  explained.  When  you  come 
to  a  bad  hill  it  would  probably  be  well  to  put  in  the  tight 
gear  pin ;  or  use  it  altogether  in  a  hilly  country. 

When  the  friction  clutch  first  came  into  use,  salesmen 
and  others  used  to  make  the  following  recommendation  (a 
recommendation  which  we  will  say  right  here  is  bad). 
They  said,  when  you  come  to  an  obstacle  in  the  road  that 
you  can't  very  well  get  your  engine  over,  throw  off  your, 
friction  clutch  from  the  road  wheels,  let  your  engine  get 
under  good  headway  running  free,  and  then  suddenly 
put  on  the  friction  clutch  and  jerk  yourself  over  the  ob- 
stacle. 

Now  this  is  no  doubt  one  way  to  get  over  an  obstacle ; 
but  no  good  engineer  would  take  his  chances  of  spoiling 
his  engine  by  doing  any  such  thing  with  it.  Some  part  of 
it  would  be  badly  strained  by  such  a  procedure;  and  if 
this  were  done  regularly  all  through  a  season,  an  engine 
would  be  worth  very  little  at  the  end  of  the  season. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

POINTS    FOR    THE    YOUNG    ENGINEER. 
QUESTIONS   AND   ANSWERS. 

THE   BOILER. 

Q.     How  should  water  be  fed  to  a  boiler  ? 

A.  In  a  steady  stream,  by  use  of  a  pump  or  injector 
working  continuously  and  supplying  just  the  amount  of 
water  required.  By  this  means  the  water  in  the  boiler 
is  maintained  at  a  uniform  level,  and  produces  steam  most 
evenly  and  perfectly. 

Q.     Why  should  pure  water  be  used  in  a  boiler  ? 

A.  Because  impure  water,  or  hard  water,  forms  scales 
on  the  boiler  flues  and  plates,  and  these  scales  act  as  non- 
conductors of  heat.  Thus  the  heat  of  the  furnace  is  not 
able  to  pass  easily  through  the  boiler  flues  and  plates  to 
the  water,  and  your  boiler  becomes  what  is  called  "a 
hard  steamer." 

Q.  What  must  be  done  to  prevent  the  formation  of 
scale  ? 

A.  First,  use  some  compound  that  will  either  prevent 
scale  from  forming,  or  will  precipitate  the  scale  forming 
substance  as  a  soft  powder  that  can  easily  be  washed  off. 
Sal  soda  dissolved  in  the  feed  water  is  recommended,  but 
great  care  should  be  exercised  in  the  use  of  sal  soda  not 
to  use  too  much  at  a  time,  as  it  may  cause  a  boiler  to 
foam.  Besides  using  a  compound,  clean  your  boiler  often 
and  regularly  with  a  hand  hose  and  a  force  pump,  and 
soak  it  out  as  often  as  possible  by  using  rain  water  for 
a  day  or  two,  especially  before  cleaning.  Rai^  water  will 
soften  and  bring  down  the  hard  scale  far  better  than  any 
compound. 

Q.     How  often  should  you  clean  your  boiler? 

A.  As  often  as  it  needs  it,  which  will  depend  upon  the 
work  you  do  and  the  condition  of  the  water.     Once  a 

95 


96  YOUNG  engineers'  GUIDE. 

week  is  usually  often  enough  if  the  boiler  is  blown  down 
a  little  every  day.  If  your  water  is  fairly  good,  once  a 
month  will  be  often  enough.  A  boiler  should  be  blown 
off  about  one  gauge  at  a  time  two  or  three  times  a  day 
with  the  blow-off  if  the  water  is  muddy. 

Q.  How  long  should  the  surface  blow-off  be  left 
open  ? 

A.  Only  for  a  few  seconds,  and  seldom  longer  than 
a  minute.  The  surface  blow-off  carries  off  the  scum  that 
forms  on  the  water,  and  other  impurities  that  rise  with 
the  scum. 

Q.     How  do  you  clean  a  boiler  by  blowing  off? 

A.  When  the  pressure  has  been  allowed  to  run  down 
open  the  blow-off  valve  at  the  bottom  of  the  boiler  and  let 
the  water  blow  out  less  than  a  minute,  till  the  water  drops 
out  of  sight  in  the  water  gauges,  or  about  two  and  one- 
half  inches.  Blown  off  more  is  only  a  waste  of  heat  and 
fuel. 

Q.  What  harm  will  be  done  by  blowing  off  a  boiler 
under  a  high  pressure  of  steam? 

A.  The  heat  in  the  boiler  while  there  is  such  a  pres- 
sure will  be  so  great  that  it  will  bake  the  scale  on  the 
inside  of  the  boiler,  and  it  will  be  very  difficult  to  remove 
it  afterward.  After  a  boiler  has  been  blown  off  the  scale 
should  be  for  the  most  part  soft,  so  that  it  can  be  washed 
out  by  a  hose  and  force  pump. 

Q.  Why  should  a  hot  boiler  never  be  filled  with  cold 
water  ? 

A.  Because  the  cold  water  will  cause  the  boiler  to 
contract  more  in  some  places  than  in  others,  and  sO'  sud- 
denly that  the  whole  will  be  badly  strained.  Leaky  flues 
are  made  in  this  way,  and  the  life  of  a  boiler  greatly 
shortened.  As  a  rule  a  boiler  should  be  filled  only  when 
the  metal  and  the  water  put  into  it  are  about  at  the  same 
temperatlire. 

Q.  After  a  boiler  has  been  cleaned,  how  should  the 
manhole  and  manhole  plates  be  replaced  ? 

A.  They  are  held  in  position  by  a  bolt  passing  through 
a  yoke  that  straddles  the  hole ;  but  to  be  steam  and  water 
tight  they  must  have  packin<y  all  around  the  junction  of 
the  plate  with  the  boiler.    The  best  packing  is  sheet  rub- 


POINTS   FOR   YOUNG   ENGINEER.  97 

ber  cut  in  the  form  of  a  ring  just  the  right  size  for  the 
bearing  surface.  Hemp  or  cotton  packing  are  also  used, 
but  they  should  be  free  from  all  lumps  and  soaked  in  oil. 
Do  not  use  any  more  than  is  absolutely  needed.  Be  care- 
ful, also,  to  see  that  the  bearings  of  the  plate  and  boiler 
are  clean  and  smooth,  with  all  the  old  packing  scraped 
off.  Candle  wick  saturated  with  red  lead  is  next  best  to 
rubber  as  packing. 

Q.  What  are  the  chief  duties  of  an  engineer  in  care 
of  a  boiler? 

A.  First,  to  watch  all  gauges,  fittings,  and  working 
parts,  to  see  that  they  are  in  order;  try  the  gauge  cocks 
to  make  sure  the  water  is  at  the  right  height;  try  the 
safety  valve  from  time  to  time  to  be  sure  it  is  working; 
see  that  there  are  no  leaks,  that  there  is  no  rusting  or 
wearing  of  parts,  or  to  replace  parts  when  they  do  begin 
to  show  wear;  to  examine  the  check  valve  frequently  to 
make  sure  no  water  can  escape  through  it  from  the 
boiler;  take  precautions  against  scale  and  stoppage  of 
pipes  by  scale ;  and  keep  the  fire  going  uniformly,  clean- 
ly, and  in  an  economical  fashion. 

Q.  What  should  you  do  if  the  glass  water  gauge 
breaks  ? 

A.  Turn  oflF  the  gauge  cocks  above  and  below,  the 
lower  one  first  so  that  the  hot  water  will  not  burn  you. 
You  may  put  in  a  new  glass  and  turn  on  gauge  cocks  at 
once.  Turn  on  the  lower  or  water  cock  first,  then  the 
upper  or  steam  cock.  You  may  go  on  without  the  glass 
gauge,  however,  using  the  gauge  cocks  or  try  cocks  every 
few  minutes  to  make  sure  the  water  is  at  the  right  height, 
neither  too  high  nor  too  low. 

Q.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  use  the  gauge  cocks  when 
the  glass  gauge  is  all  right? 

A.  First,  because  you  cannot  otherwise  be  sure  that 
the  glass  gauge  is  all  right;  and,  secondly,  because  if 
you  do  not  use  them  frequently  they  are  likely  to  become 
scaled  up  so  that  you  cannot  use  them  in  case  of  accident 
to  the  glass  gauge. 

Q.     If  a  gauge  cock  gets  leaky,  what  should  be  done? 

A.  Nothing  until  the  boiler  has  cooled  down.  Then  if 
the  leak  is  in  the  seat,  take  it  out  and  grind  and  refit  it ; 


98 

if  the  leak  is  where  the  cock  is  screwed  into  the  boiler, 
tighten  it  up  another  turn  and  see  if  that  remedies  the 
difficulty.  If  it  does  not  you  will  probably  have  to  get  a 
new  gauge  cock. 

Q.  Why  not  screw  up  a  gauge  cock  while  there  is  a 
pressure  of  steam  on? 

A.  The  cock  might  blow  out  and  cause  serious  injury 
to  yourself  or  some  one  else.  Make  it  a  rule  never  to  fool 
with  any  boiler  fittings  while  there  is  a  pressure  of  steam 
on  the  boiler.    It  is  exceedingly  dangerous. 

Sometimes  a  gauge  cock  gets  broken  off  accidentally 
while  the  boiler  is  in  use.  If  such  an  accident  happens, 
bank  the  fire  by  closing  the  draft  and  covering  the  fire 
with  fresh  fuel  or  ashes.  Stop  the  engine  and  let  the 
water  blow  out  of  the  hole  till  only  steam  appears ;  then 
try  to  plug  the  opening  with  a  long  whitewood  or  poplar, 
or  even  a  pine  stick  (six  or  eight  feet  long),  one  end  of 
which  you  have  whittled  down  to  about  the  size  of  the 
hole.  When  the  steam  has  been  stopped  the  stick  may 
be  cut  off  close  to  the  boiler  and  the  plug  driven  in  tight. 
If  necessary  you  may  continue  to  use  the  boiler  in  this 
condition  until  a  new  cock  can  be  put  in. 

Q.  What  should  you  do  when  a  gauge  cock  is 
stopped  up? 

A.  Let  the  steam  pressure  go  down,  and  then  take 
off  the  front  part  and  run  a  small  wire  into  the  passage, 
working  the  wire  back  and  forth  until  all  scale  and 
sediment  has  been  removed. 

Q.  What  should  you  do  when  the  steam  gauge  gets 
out  of  order. 

A.  If  the  steam  gauge  does  not  work  correctly,  or 
you  suspect  it  does  not,  you  may  test  it  by  running 
the  steam  up  until  it  blows  off  at  the  safety  valve. 
If  the  steam  gauge  does  not  indicate  the  pressure  at 
which  the  safety  valve  is  set  to  pop  off,  and  you  have 
reason  to  suppose  the  safety  valve  is  all  right,  you  may 
conclude  that  there  is  something  the  matter  with  the 
steam  gauge.  In  that  case  either  put  in  a  new  one,  or, 
if  you  have  no  extra  steam  gauge  on  hand,  shut  down 
your  boiler  and  engine  till  you  can  get  your  steam  gauge 


POINTS   FOR  YOUNG   ENGINEER.  QQ 

repaired.  Sometimes  this  can  be  done  simply  by  adjust- 
ing the  pointer,  which  may  have  got  loose,  and  you  can 
test  it  by  attaching  it  to  another  boiler  which  has  a  steam 
gauge  that  is  all  right  and  by  which  you  can  check  up 
yours.  It  is  VERY  DANGEROUS  to  run  your  boiler 
without  a  steam  gauge,  depending  on  the  safety  valve. 
Never  allow  the  slightest  variation  in  correctness  of  the 
steam  gauge  without  repairing  it  at  once.  It  will  nearly 
always  be  cheaper  in  these  days  to  put  in  a  new  gauge 
rather  than  try  to  repair  the  old  one. 

Q.     What  should  you  do  if  the  pump  fails  to  work? 

A.     Use  the  injector. 

Q.     What  should  you  do  if  there  is  no  injector? 

A.  Stop  the  engine  at  once  and  bank  the  fire  with 
damp  ashes,  especially  noting  that  the  water  does  not 
fall  below  the  bottom  of  the  glass  gauge.  Then  examine 
the  pump.  First  see  if  the  plunger  leaks  air;  if  it  is  all 
right,  examine  the  check  valves,  using  the  little  drain 
cock  as  previously  explained  to  test  the  upper  ones,  for 
the  valves  may  have  become  worn  and  will  leak ;  third, 
if  the  check  valves  are  all  right,  examine  the  supply  pipe, 
looking  at  the  strainer,  observing  whether  suction  takes 
place  when  the  pump  is  worked,  etc.  There  may  be  a 
leak  in  the  suction  hose  somewhere  during  its  course 
where  air  can  get  in,  or  it  may  become  weak  and  col- 
lapse under  the  force  of  the  atmosphere,  or  the  lining 
of  the  suction  pipe  may  have  become  torn  or  loose.  The 
slightest  leak  in  the  suction  pipe  will  spoil  the  working 
of  the  pump.  Old  tubing  should  never  be  used,  as  it 
is  sure  to  give  trouble.  Finally,  examine  the  delivery 
pipe.  Close  the  cock  or  valve  next  the  boiler,  and  exam- 
ine the  boiler  check  valve;  notice  whether  the  pipe  is 
getting  limed  up.  If  necessary,  disconnect  the  pipe  and 
clean  it  out  with  a  stiff  wire.  If  everything  is  all  right 
up  to  this  point,  you  must  let  the  boiler  cool  off,  blow 
out  the  water,  disconnect  the  pipe  between  the  check 
and  the  boiler,  and  thoroughly  clean  the  delivery  pipe 
into  the  boiler.  Stoppage  of  the  delivery  pipe  is  due  to 
deposits  of  lime  from  the  heating  of  the  water  in  the 
heater.     Stoppage  from  this  source  will  be  gradual,  and 


100 

you  will  find  less  and  less  water  going  into  your  boiler 
from  your  pump  until  none  flows  at  all.  From  this  you 
may  guess  the  trouble. 

Q.  How  may  the  communication  with  the  water  gauge 
always  be  kept  free  from  lime? 

A.  By  blowing  it  off  through  the  drain  cock  at  the 
bottom.  First  close  the  upper  cock  and  blow  off  for  a 
few  seconds,  the  water  passing  through  the  lower  cock ; 
then  close  the  lower  cock  and  open  the  upper  one,  allow- 
ing the  steam  to  blow  through  this  and  the  drain  cock 
for  a  few  seconds.  If  you  do  this  every  day  or  oftener 
you  will  have  no  trouble. 

Q.  Should  the  water  get  low  for  any  reason,  what 
should  be  done? 

A.  Close  all  dampers  tight  so  as  to  prevent  all  draft, 
and  bank  the  fire  with  fresh  fuel  or  with  ashes  (damp 
ashes  are  the  best  if  danger  is  great).  Then  let  the 
boiler  cool  down  before  putting  in  fresh  water.  Bankirig 
the  fire  is  better  than  drawing  or  dumping  it,  as  either 
of  these  make  the  heat  greater  for  a  moment  or  two, 
and  that  additional  heat  might  cause  an  explosion.  Dash- 
ing cold  water  upon  the  fire  is  also  very  dangerous  and 
in  every  way  unwise.  Again,  do  not  open  the  safety 
valve,  for  that  also,  by  relieving  some  of  the  pressure 
on  the  superheated  water,  might  cause  it  to  burst  sud- 
denly into  steam  and  so  cause  an  explosion. 

Q.  Under  such  circumstances,  would  you  stop  the 
engine  ? 

A.  No ;  for  a  sudden  checking  of  the  outflow  of  steam 
might  bring  about  an  explosion.  Do  nothing  but  check 
the  heat  as  quickly  and  effectively  as  you  can  by  banking 
or  covering  the  fires. 

Q.     Why  not  turn  on  the  feed  water? 

A.  Because  the  crown  sheet  of  the  boiler  has  become 
overheated,  and  any  cold  water  coming  upon  it  would 
cause  an  explosion.  If  the  pump  or  injector  are  running, 
of  course  you  may  let  them  run,  and  the  boiler  will 
gradually  refill  as  the  heat  decreases.  Under  such  cir- 
cumstances low  water  is  due  to  overheating  the  boiler. 


POINTS   FOR   YOUNG   ENGINEER.  lOI 

Q.  Would  not  the  fusible  plug  avert  any  disaster  from 
low  water? 

A.  It  might,  and  it  might  not.  .The  top  of  it  is  liable 
to  get  coated  with  lime  so  that  the  device  is  worthless. 
You  should  act  at  all  times  precisely  as  if  there  were  no 
fusible  plug.  If  it  ever  does  avert  an  explosion  you 
may  be  thankful,  but  averting  explosions  by  taking  such 
means  as  we  have  suggested  will  be  far  better  for  an 
engineer's  reputation. 

Q.  Would  not  the  safety  valve  be  a  safeguard  against 
explosion  ? 

A.  No;  only  under  certain  conditions.  It  prevents 
too  high  a  pressure  for  accumulating  in  the  boiler  when 
there  is  plenty  of  water ;  but  when  the  water  gets  low 
the  safety  valve  may  only  hasten  the  explosion  by  reliev- 
ing some  of  the  pressure  and  allowing  superheated  water 
to  burst  suddenly  into  steam,  thus  vastly  expanding  in- 
stantly. 

Q.  Should  water  be  allowed  to  stand  in  the  boiler 
when  it  is  not  in  use? 

A.  It  is  better  to  draw  it  off  and  clean  the  boiler,  to 
prevent  rusting,  formation  of  scale,  hardening  of  sedi- 
ment, etc.,  if  boiler  is  to  be  left  for  any  great  length  of 
time. 

Q.  What  should  you  do  if  a  grate  bar  breaks  or  falls 
out? 

A.  You  should  always  have  a  spare  grate  bar  on  hand 
to  put  in  its  place ;  but  if  you  have  none  you  may  fill  the 
space  by  wedging  in  a  stick  of  hard  wood  cut  the  right 
shape  to  fill  the  opening.  Cover  this  wood  with  ashes 
before  poking  the  fire  over  it,  and  it  will  last  for  several 
hours  before  it  burns  out.  You  will  find  it  exceedingly 
difficult  to  keep  up  the  fire  with  a  big  hole  in  the  grate 
that  will  let  cold  aii  into  the  furnace  and  allow  coal  to 
drop  down. 

In  case  the  grate  is  of  the  rocker  type  the  opening 
may  be  filled  by  shaping  a  piece  of  flat  iron,  which  can 
be  set  in  without  interfering  with  the  rocking  of  the 
grate ;  or  the  opening  may  be  filled  with  wood  as  before 
if  the  wood  is  covered  well  with  ashes.     Of  course  the 


I02  YOUNG  ENGINEERS     GUIDE. 

use  of  wood  will  prevent  the  grate  from  rocking  and  the 
poker  must  be  used  to  clean. 

Q.  Why  should  an  engineer  never  start  a  boiler  with 
a  hot  fire,  and  never  let  his  fire  get  hotter  than  is  needed 
to  keep  up  steam  ? 

A.  Both  will  cause  the  sheets  to  warp  and  the  flues 
to  become  leaky,  because  under  high  heat  some  parts  of 
the  boiler  will  expand  more  rapidly  than  others.  For  a 
similar  reason,  any  sudden  application  of  cold  to  a  boiler, 
either  cold  water  or  cold  air  through  the  firebox  door, 
will  cause  quicker  contraction  of  certain  parts  than  other 
parts,  and  this  will  ruin  a  boiler. 

Q.     How  should  you  supply  a  boiler  with  water? 

A.  In  a  regular  stream  continually.  Only  by  making 
the  water  pass  regularly  and  gradually  through  the 
heater  will  you  get  the  full  effect  of  the  heat  from  the 
exhaust  steam.  If  a  great  deal  of  water  is  pumped  into 
the  boiler  at  one  time,  the  exhaust  steam  will  not  be  suf- 
ficient to  heat  it  as  it  ought.  Then  if  you  have  a  full 
boiler  and  shut  off  the  water  supply,  the  exhaust  steam 
in  the  heater  is  wasted,  for  it  can  do  no  work  at  all.  Be- 
sides, it  hurts  the  boiler  to  allow  the  temperature  to 
change,  as  it  will  inevitably  do  if  water  is  supplied  irreg- 
ularly. 

WHATEVER  YOU  DO,  NEVER  ATTEMPT  TO 
TIGHTEN  A  SCREW  OR  CALK  A  BOILER 
UNDER  STEAM  PRESSURE.  IF  ANYTHING  IS 
LOOSE  IT  IS  LIABLE  TO  BLOW  OUT  IN  YOUR 
FACE  WITH  DISASTROUS  CONSEQUENCES. 

Q.  If  boiler  flues  become  leaky,  can  an  ordinary  per- 
son tighten  them? 

A.  Yes,  if  the  work  is  done  carefully.  See  full  ex- 
planation previously  given,  p.  17.  Great  care  should  be 
taken  not  to  expand  the  flues  too  much,  for  by  so  doing 
you  are  likely  to  loosen  other  flues  and  cause  more  leaks 
than  you  had  in  the  first  place.  Small  leaks  inside  a 
boiler  are  not  particularly  dangerous,  but  they  should 
be  remedied  at  the  earliest  possible  moment,  since  they 


POINTS    FOR   YOUNG    ENGINEER.  IO3 

reduce  the  power  of  the  boiler  and  put  out  the  fire.  Be- 
sides, they  look  bad  for  the  engineer. 

Q.     How  should  flues  be  cleaned? 

A.  Some  use  a  steam  blower;  but  a  better  way  is 
to  scrape  off  the  metal  with  one  of  the  many  patent 
scrapers,  which  just  fill  the  flue,  and  when  attached  to 
a  rod  and  worked  back  and  forth  a  few  times  the  whole 
length  of  the  flue  do  admirable  service. 

Q.     What  harm  will  dirty  flues  do? 

A.  Two  difficulties  arise  from  dirty  flues.  If  they 
become  reduced  in  size  the  fire  will  not  burn  well.  Then, 
the  same  amount, of  heat  will  do  far  less  work  because  it 
is  so  much  harder  for  it  to  get  through  the  layer  of  soot 
and  ashes,  which  are  non-conductors. 

Q.     What  would  you  do  if  the  throttle  broke? 

A.     Use  reverse  lever. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

POINTS  FOR  THE  YOUNG  ENGINEER. (CONT.) 

QUESTIONS    AND    ANSWERS. 

THE    ENGINE. 

Q.     What  is  the  first  thing  to  do  with  a  new  engine  ? 

A.  With  some  cotton  waste  or  a  soft  rag  saturated 
with  benzine  or  turpentine  clean  off  all  the  bright  work ; 
then  clean  every  bearing,  box  and  oil  hole,  using  a  force 
pump  with  air  current  first,  if  you  have  a  pump,  and 
then  wiping  the  inside  out  clean  with  an  oily  rag,  using 
a  wire  if  necessary  to  make  the  work  thorough.  If  you 
do  not  clean  the  working  parts  of  the  engine  thus  before 
setting  it  up,  grit  will  get  into  the  bearings  and  cause 
them  to  cut.  Parts  that  have  been  put  together  need  not 
be  taken  apart;  but  you  should  clean  everything  you  can 
get  at,  especially  the  oil  holes  and  other  places  that  may 
receive  dirt  during  transportation. 

After  the  oil  holes  have  been  well  cleaned,  the  oil  cups 
may  be  wiped  off  and  put  in  place,  screwing  them  in  with 
a  wrench. 

Q.     What  kind  of  oil  should  you  use? 

A.  Cylinder  oil  only  for  the  cylinder ;  lard  oil  for  the 
bearings,  and.  hard  grease  if  your  engine  is  provided 
with  hard  grease  cup  for  the  cross-head  and  crank.  The 
only  good  substitute  for  cylinder  oil  is  pure  beef  suet 
tried  out.  Merchantable  tallow  should  never  be  used,  as 
it  contains  acid. 

Q.     Can  fittings  be  screwed  on  by  hand  only? 

A.  No;  all  fittings  should  be  screwed  up  tight  with 
a  wrench. 

Q.  When  all  fittings  are  in  place,  what  must  be  done 
before  the  engine  can  be  started? 

A.  See  that  the  grates  in  the  firebox  are  in  place  and 
^11  right;    then   fill  the  boiler  with  clean  water  until  it 

104 


POINTS   FOR  YOUNG   ENGINEER.  IO5 

shows  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in  the  water  gauge. 
Start  your  fire,  and  let  it  burn  slowly  until  there  is  a 
pressure  in  the  boiler  of  lo  or  15  lbs.  Then  you  can  turn 
on  the  blower  to  get  up  draft.  In  the  meantime  fill  all 
the  oil  cups  with  oil ;  put  grease  on  the  gears ;  open  and 
close  all  cocks  to  see  that  they  work  all  right ;  turn  your 
engine  over  a  few  times  to  see  that  it  works  all  right; 
let  a  little  steam  into  the  cylinder  with  both  cylinder  cocks 
open — just  enough  to  show  at  the  cocks  without  moving 
the  engine — and  slowly  turn  the  engine  over,  stopping 
it  on  the  dead  centers  to  see  if  the  steam  comes  from  only 
one  of  the  cylinder  cocks  at  a  time,  and  that  the  proper 
one ;  reverse  the  engine  and  make  the  same  test.  Also  see 
that  the  cylinder  oiler  is  in  place  and  ready  for  operation. 
See  that  the  pump  is  all  right  and  in  place,  with  the 
valve  in  the  feedpipe  open  and  also  the  valve  in  the 
supply  pipe. 

By  going  over  the  engine  in  this  way  you  will  notice 
whether  everything  is  tight  and  in  working  order,  and 
whether  you  have  failed  to  notice  any  part  which  you  do 
not  understand.  If  there  is  any  part  or  fitting  you  do 
not  understand,  know  all  about  it  before  you  go  ahead. 

Having  started  your  fire  with  dry  wood,  add  fuel  grad- 
ually, a  little  at  a  time,  until  you  have  a  fire  covering 
every  part  of  the  grate.  Regulate  the  fire  by  the  damper 
alone,  never  opening  the  firebox  door  even  if  the  fire  gets 
too  hot 

Q.     In  what  way  should  the  engine  be  started? 

A.  When  you  have  from  25  to  40  lbs.  of  pressure 
open  the  throttle  valve  a  little,  allowing  the  cylinder 
cocks  to  be  open  also.  Some  steam  will  condense  at  first 
in  the  cold  cylinder,  and  this  water  must  be  allowed  to 
drain  oflf.  See  that  the  crank  is  not  on  a  dead  center, 
and  put  on  just  enough  steam  to  start  the  engine.  As  soon 
as  it  gets  warmed  up,  and  only  dry  steam  appears  at  the 
cocks,  close  the  cylinder  cocks,  open  the  throttle  gradu- 
ally till  it  is  wide  open,  and  wait  for  the  engine  to  work 
up  to  its  full  speed. 

Q.     How  is  the  speed  of  the  engine  regulated? 

A.     By  the  governor,  which  is  operated  by  a  belt  run- 


I06  YOUNG   engineers'   GUIDE. 

ning  to  the  main  shaft.  The  governor  is  a  deHcate  ap- 
paratus, and  should  be  watched  closely.  It  should  move 
up  and  down  freely  on  the  stem,  which  should  not 
leak  steam.  If  it  doesn't  work  steadily,  you  should  stop 
the  engine  and  adjust  it,  after  watching  it  for  a  mirmte  or 
two  to  see  just  where  the  difficulty  lies. 

Q.     Are  you  likely  to  have  any  hot  boxes? 

A.  There  should  be  none  if  the  bearings  are  all  clean 
and  well  supplied  with  oil.  However,  in  starting  a  new 
engine  you  should  stop  now  and  then  and  examine 
every  bearing  by  laying  your  hand  upon  it.  Remember 
the  eccentric,  the  link  pin,  the  cross-head,  the  crank  pin. 
If  there  is  any  heat,  loosen  the  boxes  up  a  trifle,  but 
only  a  very  little  at  a  time.  If  you  notice  any  knocking 
or  pounding,  you  have  loosened  too  much,  and  should 
tighten  again. 

Q.     What  must  you  do  in  regard  to  water  supply? 

A.  After  the  engine  is  started  and  you  know  it  is  all 
right,  fill  the  tank  on  the  engine  and  start  the  injector. 
It  may  take  some  patience  to  get  the  injector  started,  and 
you  should  carefully  follow  the  directions  previously 
given  and  those  which  apply  especially  to  the  type  of 
injector  used.  Especially  be  sure  that  the  cocks  admit- 
ting the  water  through  the  feed  pipe  and  into  the  boiler 
are  open. 

Q.  Why  are  both  a  pump  and  an  injector  required 
on  an  engine? 

A.  The  pump  is  most  economical,  because  it  permits 
the  heat  in  the  exhaust  steam  to  be  used  to  heat  the  feed 
water,  while  the  injector  heats  the  water  by  live  steam. 
There  should  also  be  an  injector,  however,  for  use  when 
the  engine  is  not  working,  in  order  that  the  water  in 
the  boiler  may  be  kept  up  with  heated  water.  If  a  cross- 
head  pump  is  used,  of  course,  it  will  not  operate  when 
the  engine  is  not  running ;  and  in  case  of  an  independent 
Dump  the  heater  will  not  heat  the  water  when  the  engine 
is  not  running  because  there  is  little  or  no  exhaust  steam 
available.  There  is  an  indcDendent  pump  (the  Marsh 
pump)    which   h^ats   the   w:ter  before  it  goes  into  th^ 


POINTS   FOR   YOUNG   ENGINEER.  IO7 

boiler,  and  this  may  be  used  when  the  engine  is  shut 
down  instead  of  the  injector. 

Q.     What  is  the  next  thing  to  test  ? 

A.  The  reversing  mechanism.  Throw  the  reverse 
lever  back,  and  see  if  the  engine  will  run  equally  well  in 
the  opposite  direction.  Repeat  this  a  few  times  to  make 
sure  that  the  reverse  is  in  good  order. 

Q.     How  is  a  traction  engine  set  going  upon  the  road  ? 

A.  Most  traction  engines  now  have  the  friction  clutch. 
When  the  engine  is  going  at  full  speed,  take  hold  of  the 
clutch  lever  and  slowly  bring  the  clutch  against  the  band 
wheel.  It  will  slip  a  little  at  first,  gradually  engaging 
the  gears  and  moving  the  outfit.  Hold  the  clutch  lever 
in  one  hand,  while  with  the  other  you  operate  the  steering 
wheel.  By  keeping  your  hand  on  the  clutch  lever  you 
may  stop  forward  motion  instantly  if  anything  goes 
wrong.  When  the  engine  is  once  upon  the  road,  the 
clutch  lever  may  set  in  the  notch  provided  for  it,  and 
the  engine  will  go  at  full  speed.  You  can  then  give  your 
entire  attention  to  steering. 

Q.  What  should  you  do  if  the  engine  has  no  friction 
clutch  ? 

A.  Stop  the  engine,  placing  the  reversing  lever  in  the 
center  notch.  Then  slide  the  spur  pinion  into  the  gear 
and  open  the  throttle  valve  wide.  You  are  now  ready  to 
control  the  engine  by  the  reversing  lever.  Throw  the 
lever  forward  a  little,  bringing  it  back,  and  so  continue 
until  you  have  got  the  engine  started  gradually.  When 
well  under  way  throw  the  reverse  lever  into  the  last 
notch,  and  give  your  attention  to  steering. 

Q.     How  should  you  steer  a  traction  engine? 

A.  In  all  cases  the  same  man  should  handle  the  throt- 
tle and  steer  the  engine.  Skill  in  steering  comes  by  prac- 
tice, and  about  the  only  rule  that  can  be  given  is  to  go 
slow,  and  under  no  circumstances  jerk  your  engine  about. 
Good  steering  depends  a  great  deal  on  natural  ability  to 
judge  distances  by  the  eye  and  power  by  the  feel.  A 
good  engineer  must  have  a  good  eye,  a  good  ear,  and 
a  good  touch  (if  we  may  so  speak).  If  either  is  wanting, 
success  will  be  uncertain. 


I08  YOUNG  engineers'  GUIDE. 

Q.     How  should  an  engine  be  handled  on  the  road  ? 

A.     There  will  be  no  special  difficulty  in  handling  an 
engine  on  a  straight,  level  piece  of  road,  especially  if  the  . 
road  is  hard  and  without  holes.     But  when  you  come  to 
your  first  hill  your  troubles  will  begin. 

Before  ascending  a  hill,  see  that  the  water  in  the  boiler 
does  not  stand  more  than  two  inches  in  the  glass  gauge. 
If  there  is  too  much  water,  as  it  is  thrown  to  one  end 
of  the  engine  by  the  grade  it  is  liable  to  gef  into  the 
steam  cylinder.  If  you  have  too  much  water,  blow  off  a 
little  from  the  bottom  blow-off  cock. 

In  descending  a  hill  never  stop  your  engine  for  a  m,o- 
ment,  since  your  crown  sheet  will  be  uncovered  by  rea- 
son of  the  water  being  thrown  forward,  and  any  cessation 
in  the  jolting  of  the  engine  which  keeps  the  water  flow- 
ing over  the  crown  sheet  will  cause  the  fusible  plug  to 
blow  out,  making  delay  and  expense. 

Make  it  a  point  never  to  stop  your  engine  except  on 
the  level. 

Before  descending  a  hill,  shut  off  the  steam  at  the 
throttle,  and  control  the  engine  by  the  friction  brake;  or 
if  there  is  no  brake^  do  not  quite  close  the  throttle,  but 
set  the  reverse  lever  in  the  center  notch,  or  back  far 
enough  to  control  the  speed.  It  is  seldom  necessary  to 
use  steam  in  going  down  hill,  however,  and  if  the  throt- 
tle is  closed  even  with  no  friction  brake,  the  reverse  may 
be  used  in  such  a  way  as  to  form  an  air  brake  in  the  cyl- 
inder. 

Get  down  to  the  bottom  of  a  hill  as  quickly,  as  you 
can. 

Before  descending  a  hill  it  would  be  well  to  close  your 
dampers  and  keep  the  firebox  door  closed  tight  all  the 
time.  Cover  the  fire  with  fresh  fuel  so  as  to  keep  the  heat 
down. 

The  pump  or  injector  must  be  kept  at  work,  however, 
since  as  you  have  let  the  water  down  low,  you  must  not 
let  it  fall  any  lower  or  you  are  likely  to  have  trouble. 

In  ascending  a  hill,  do  just  the  reverse,  namely :  Keep 
your  fire  brisk  and  hot,  with  steam  pressure  ascending; 
and  throw  the  reverse  lever  in  the  last  notch,  giving  the 


POINTS   FOR  YOUNG   ENGINEER.  lOQ 

engine  all  the  steam  you  can,  else  you  may  get  stuck.  If 
you  stop  you  are  likely  to  overheat  forward  end  of  fire 
tubes.  You  are  less  liable  to  get  stuck  if  you  go  slowly 
than  if  you  go  fast.    Regulate  speed  by  friction  clutch. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

POINTS    FOR   THE   YOUNG   ENGINEER. (CONT.) 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Q.     What  is  Foaming? 

A.  The  word  is  used  to  describe  the  rising  of  water 
in  large  bubbles  or  foam.  You  will  detect  it  by  noticing 
that  the  water  in  the  glass  gauge  rises  and  falls,  or  is 
foamy.  It  is  due  to  'sediment  in  the  boiler,  or  'grease 
and  other  impurities  in  the  feed  supply.  Shaking  up  the 
boiler  will  start  foaming  sometimes ;  at  other  times  it  will 
start  without  apparent  cause.  In  such  cases  it  is  due  to 
the  steam  trying  to  get  through  a  thick  crust  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  water. 

Q.     How  may  you  prevent  foaming? 

A.  It  may  be  checked  for  a  moment  by  turning  off 
the  throttle,  so  giving  the  water  a  chance  to  settle.  It  is 
generally  prevented  by  frequently  using  the  surface  blow- 
off  to  clear  away  the  scum.  Of  course  the  water  must  be 
kept  as  pure  as  possible,  and  especially  should  alkali 
water  be  avoided. 

Q.     What   is   priming? 

A.  Priming  is  not  the  same  as  foaming,  though  it  is 
often  caused  by  foaming.  Priming  is  the  carrying  of 
water  into  the  steam  cylinder  with  the  steam.  It  is 
caused  by  various  things  beside  foaming,  for  it  may  be 
found  when  the  boiler  is  quite  clean.  A  sudden  and  very 
hot  fire  may  start  priming.  Priming  sometimes  follows 
lowering  of  the  steam  pressure.  Often  it  is  due  to  lack  of 
capacity  in  the  boiler,  especially  lack  of  steam  space,  or 
lack  of  good  circulation. 

Q.     How  can  you  detect  priming? 

A.  By  the  clicking  sound  it  makes  in  the  steam  cyl- 
inder. The  water  in  the  gauge  will  also  go  up  and  down 
violently.  There  will  also  be  a  shower  of  water  from  the 
exhaust. 

no 


POINTS   FOR  YOUNG   ENGINEER.  Ill 

Q.     What  is  the  proper  remedy  for  priming? 

A.  If  it  is  due  to  lack  of  capacity  in  the  boiler  nothing 
can  be  done  but  get  a  new  boiler.  In  other  cases  it  may 
be  remedied  by  carrying  less  water  in  the  boiler  when 
that  can  be  done  safely,  by  taking  steam  from  a  different 
point  in  the  steam  dome,  or  if  there  is  no  dome  by  using 
a  long  dry  pipe  with  perforation  at  the  end. 

A  larger  steam  pipe  may  help  it ;  or  it  may  be  remedied 
by  taking  out  the  top  row  of  flues. 

Leaky  cylinder  rings  or  a  leaky  valve  may  also  have 
something  to  do  with  it.  In  all  cases  these  should  be 
made  steam  tight.  If  the  exhaust  nozzle  is  choked  up 
with  grease  or  sediment,  clean  it  out. 

A  traction  engine  with  small  steam  ports  would  prime 
quickly  under  forced  speed. 

Q.     How  would  you  bank  your  fires? 

A.  Push  the  fire  as  far  to  the  back  of  the  firebox  as 
possible  and  cover  it  over  with  very  fine  coal  or  with  dry 
ashes.  As  large  a  portion  as  possible  of  the  grate  should 
be  left  open,  so  that  the  air  may  pass  over  the  fire.  Close 
the  damper  tight.  By  banking  your  fires  at  night  you 
keep  the  boiler  w^arm  and  can  get  up  steam  more  quickly 
in  the  morning'. 

Q.  When  water  is  left  in  the  boiler  with  banked  fire 
in  cold  weather,  what  precautions  ought  to  be  taken  ? 

A.  The  cocks  in  the  glass  water  gauge  should  be 
closed  and  the  drain  cock  at  the  bottom  opened,  for  fear 
the  water  in  the  exposed  gauge  should  freeze.  Likewise 
all  drain  cocks  in  L^team  cylinder  and  pump  should  be 
opened. 

Q.  How  should  a  traction  engine  be  prepared  for 
laying  up  during  the  winter? 

A.  First,  the  outside  of  the  boiler  and  engine  should 
be  thoroughly  cleaned,  seeing  that  all  gummy  oil  or 
grease  is  removed.  Then  give  the  outside  of  the  boiler 
and  smokestack  a  coat  of  asphalt  paint,  or  a  coat  of 
lampblack  and  linseed  oil,  or  at  any  rate  a  doping  of 
grease. 

The  outside  of  the  boiler  should  be  cleaned  while  it  is 
hot,  so  that  grease,  etc.,  may  be  easily  removed  while 
soft. 


112  '  YOUNG  engineers'  GUIDE. 

After  the  outside  has  been  attended  to,  blow  out  the 
water  at  low  pressure  arid  thoroughly  clean  the  inside  in 
the  usual  way,  taking  out  the  handhole  and  manhole 
plates,  and  scraping  off  all  scale  and  sediment. 

After  the  boiler  has  been  cleaned  on  the  inside,  fill  it 
nearly  full  of  water,  and  pour  upon  the  top  a  bucket  of 
black  oil.  Then  let  the  water  out  through  the  blow-off 
at  the  bottom.  As  the  water  goes  down  it  will  have  a 
coating  of  oil  down  the  sides  of  the  boiler. 

All  the  brass  fittings  should  be  removed,  including 
gauge  cocks,  check  valves,  safety  valve,  etc.  Disconnect 
all  pipes  that  may  contain  water,  to  be  sure  none  remains 
in  any  of  them.  Open  all  stuffing  boxes  and  take  out 
packing,  for  the  packing  will  cause  the  parts  they  sur- 
round to  rust. 

Finally,  clean  out  the  inside  of  the  firebox  and  the  fire 
flues,  and  give  the  ash-pan  a  good  coat  of  paint  all  over, 
inside  as  well  as  out. 

The  inside  of  the  cylinder  should  be  well  greased, 
which  can  be  done  by  removing  the  cylinder  head. 

See  that  the  top  of  the  smoke  stack  is  covered  to  keep 
out  the  weather. 

All  brass  fittings  should  be  carefully  packed  and  put 
away  in  a  dry  place. 

A  little  attention  to  the  engine  when  you  put  it  up  will 
save  twice  as  much  time  when  you  take  it  out  next  sea- 
son, and  besides  save  many  dollars  of  value  in  the  life  of 
the  engine. 

Q.     How  should  belting  be  cared  for? 

A.     First,  keep  belts  free  from  dust  and  dirt. 

Never  overload  belts. 

Do  not  let  oil  or  grease  drip  upon  them. 

Never  put  any  sticky  or  pasty  grease  on  a  belt. 

Never  allow  any  animal  oil  or  grease  to  touch  a  rubber 
belt,  since  it  will  destroy  the  life  of  the  rubber. 

The  grain  or  hair  side  should  run  next  the  pulley,  as  it 
holds  better  and  is  not  so  likely  to  slip. 

Rubber  belts  will  be  greatly  improved  if  they  are  cov- 
ered with  a  mixture  of  black  lead  and  litharge,  equal 
parts,  mixed  with  boiled  oil,  and  just  enough  japan  to 


POINTS   FOR  YOUNG   ENGINEER.  II3 

dry  them>  quickly.  This  mixture  will  do  to  put  on  places 
that  peel. 

Q.     What  is  the  proper  way  to  lace  a  belt? 

A.  First,  square  the  ends  with  a  proper  square,  cut- 
ting them  off  to  a  nicety.  Begin  to  lace  in  the  middle, 
and  do  not  cross  the  laces  on  the  pulley  side.  On  that 
side  the  lacings  should  run  straight  with  the  length  of 
the  belt. 

The  holes  in  the  belt  should  be  punched  if  possible  with 
an  oval  punch,  the  long  diameter  coinciding  with  the 
length  of  the  belt.  Make  two  rows  of  holes  in  each  end 
of  the  belt,  so  that  the  holes  in  each  row  will  alternate 
with  those  in  preceding  row,  making  a  zigzag.  Four 
holes  will  be  required  for  a  three-inch  belt  in  each  end, 
two  holes  in  each  row;  in  a  six-inch  belt,  place  seven 
holes  in  each  end,  four  in  the  row  nearest  the  end. 

To  find  the  length  of  a  belt  when  the  exact  length  can- 
not be  measured  conveniently,  measure  a  straight  line  from 
the  center  of  one  pulley  to  the  center  of  the  other.  Add 
together  half  the  diameter  of  each  pulley,  and  multiply 
that  by  y/i  (3. 141 6).  The  result  added  to  twice  the 
distance  between  the  centers  will  give  the  total  length  of 
the  belt. 

A  belt  will  work  best  if  it  is  allowed  to  sag  just  a 
trifle. 

The  seam  side  of  a  rubber  belt  should  be  placed  out- 
ward, or  away  from  the  pulley. 

If  such  a  belt  slips,  coat  the  inside  with  boiled  linseed 
oil  or  soap. 

Cotton  belting  may  be  preserved  by  painting  the  pulley 
side  while  running  with  common  paint,  afterward  apply- 
ing soft  oil  or  grease. 

If  a  belt  slips  apply  a  little  oil  or  soap  to  the  pulley 
side. 

Q.     How  does  the  capacity  of  belts  vary? 

A.  In  proportion  to  width  and  also  to  the  speed. 
Double  the  width  and  you  double  the  capacity;  also, 
within  a  certain  limit,  double  the  speed  and  you  double 
the  capacity.  A  belt  should  not  be  run  over  5,000  feet 
per  minute.  One  four-inch  belt  will  have  the  same  capac- 
ity as  two  two-inch  belts. 


114  YOUNG  ENGINEERS    GUIDE. 

Q.  How  are  piston  rods  and  valve  rods  packed  so 
that  the  steam  cannot  escape  around  them? 

A.  By  packing  placed  in  stuffing-boxes.  The  stuf- 
fing is  of  some  material  that  has  a  certain  amount  of 
elasticity,  such  as  lamp  wick,  hemp,  soap  stone,  etc.,  and 
certain  patent  preparations.  The  packing  is  held  in  place 
by  a  gland,  as  it  is  called,  which  acts  to  tighten  the  pack- 
ing as  the  cap  of  the  stuffing-box  is  screwed  up. 

Q.     How  would  you  repack  a  stuffing-box? 

A.  First  remove  the  cap  and  the  gland,  and  with  a 
proper  tool  take  out  all  the  old  packing.  Do  not  use  any 
rough  instrument  like  a  file,  which  is  liable  to  scratch  the 
rod,  for  any  injury  to  the  smooth  surface  of  the  rod 
will  make  it  leak  steam  or  work  hard. 

If  patent  packing  is  used,  cut  oi¥  a  sufficient  number 
of  lengths  to  make  the  required  rings.  They  should  be 
exactly  the  right  length  to  go  around  inside  the  stuffing- 
box.  If  too  long,  they  cannot  be  screwed  up  tight,  as  the 
ends  will  press  together  and  cause  irregularities.  If  too 
short,  the  ends  will  not  meet  and  will  leak  steam.  Cut 
the  ends  diagonally  so  that  they  will  make  a  lap  joint  in- 
stead of  a  square  one.  When  the  stuffing-box  has  been 
filled,  place  the  gland  in  position  and  screw  up  tight. 
Afterwards  loosen  the  nuts  a  trifle,  as  the  steam  will 
cause  the  packing  to  expand,  usually.  The  stuffing-box 
should  be  just  as  loose  as  it  can  be  and  not  allow  leakage 
of  steam.  If  steami  leaks,  screw  up  the  box  a  little 
tighter.  If  it  still  leaks,  do  not  screw  up  as  tight  as  you 
possibly  can.  but  repack  the  box.  If  the  stuffing-box  is 
too  tight,  either  for  the  piston  rod  or  valve  steam,,  it  will 
cause  the  engine  to  work  hard,  and  may  groove  the  rods 
and  spoil  them. 

If  hemp  packing  is  -used,  pull  the  fibres  out  straight 
and  free,  getting  rid  of  all  knots  and  lumps.  Twist  to- 
gether a  few  of  the  fibres,  making  three  cords,  and  braid 
these  three  cords  together  and  soak  them  with  oil  or 
grease,  wind  around  the  rod  till  stuffing-box  is  sufficiently 
full,  replace  the  gland,  and  screw  up  as  before. 

Stuffing-box  for  water  piston  of  pump  may  be  packed 
as  described  above,  but  little  oil  or  grease  will  be  needed. 


Points  for  young  engineer.  115 

Never  pack  the  stuffing-box  too  tight,  or  you  may  flute 
the  rod  and  spoil  it; 

Always  keep  the  packing  in  a  clean  place,  well  covered 
up,  never  allowing  any  dust  to  get  into  it,  for  the  dust 
or  grit  is  liable  to  cut  the  rod. 


CHAPTER  X. 

ECONOMY  IN  RUNNING  A  FARM  ENGINE. 

It  is  something  to  be  able  to  run  a  farm  engine  and 
keep  out  of  trouble.  It  is  even  a  great  deal  if  every- 
thing runs  smoothly  day  in  and  day  out,  if  the  engine 
looks  clean,  and  you  can  always  develop  the  amount  of 
power  you  need.  You  must  be  able  to  do  this  before  you 
can  give  the  fine  points  of  engineering  much  considera- 
tion. 

When  you  come  to  the  point  where  you  are  always  able 
to  keep  out  of  trouble,  you  are  probably  ready  to  learn 
how  you  can  make  your  engine  do  more  work  on  less 
fuel  than  it  does  at  present.  In  that  direction  the  best 
of  us  have  an  infinite  amount  to  learn.  It  is  a  fact  that 
in  an  ordinary  farm  engine  only  about  4  per  cent  of  the 
coal  energy  is  actually  saved  and  used  for  work ;  the  rest 
is  lost,  partly  in  the  boiler,  more  largely  in  the  engine. 
So  we  see  what  a  splendid  chance  there  is  to  save. 

If  we  are  asked  where  all  the  lost  energy  goes  to,  we 
might  reply  in  a  general  sort  of  way,  a  good  deal  goes 
up  the  smokestack  in  smoke  or  unused  fuel ;  some  is  ra- 
diated from  the  boiler  in  the  form,  of  heat  and  is  lost 
without  producing  any  effect  on  the  steam  within  the 
boiler;  some  is  lost  in  the  cooling  of  the  steam  as  it 
passes  to  the  steam  cylinder;  some  is  lost  in  the  cooling 
of  the  cylinder  itself  after  each  stroke;  some  is  lost 
through  the  pressure  on  the  back  of  the  steam  valve, 
causing  a  friction  that  requires  a  good  deal  of  energy 
in  the  engine  to  overcome ;  some  is  lost  in  friction  in  the 
bearings,  stuffing-boxes,  etc.  At  each  of  these  points 
economy  may  be  practiced  if  the  engineer  knows  how  to 
do  it.    We  offer  a  few  suggestions. 

THEORY  OF   STEAM   POWER. 

As  econoTny  is  a  scientific  question,  we  cannot  study 
it  intelligently  without  knowing  something  of  the  theory 

116 


ECONOMY   RUNNING   FARM   ENGINE.  II7 

of  heat,  steam  and  the  transmission  of  power.  There 
will  be  nothing  technical  in  the  following  pages ;  and  as 
soon  as  the  theory  is  explained  in  simple  language,  any 
intelligent  person  will  know  for  himself  just  what  he 
ought  to  do  in  any  given  case. 

First,  let  us  define  or  describe  heat  according  to  the 
scientific  theory.  Scientists  suppose  that  all  matter  is 
made  up  of  small  particles  called  molecules,  so'  small  that 
they  have  never  been  seen.  Each  molecule  is  made  up  of 
still  smaller  particles  called  atoms.  There  is  nothing 
smaller  than  an  atom,  and  there  are  only  about  sixty-five 
different  kinds  of  atoms,  which  are  called  elements ;  or 
rather,  any  substance  made  up  of  only  one  kind  of  atom 
is  called  an  element.  Thus  iron  is  an  element,  and  so  is 
zinc,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  etc.  But  a  substance  like  water 
is  not  an  element,  but  a  compound,  since  its  molecules  are 
made  up  of  an  atom  of  oxygen  united  with  two  atoms  of 
hydrogen.  Wood  is  made  up  of  many  different  kinds  of 
atoms  united  in  various  ways.  Air  is  not  a  compound, 
but  a  mixture  of  oxygen,  nitrogen  and  a  few  other  sub- 
stances in  small  quantities. 

The  reason  why  air  is  a  mixture  and  not  a  compound 
is  an  interesting  one,  and  brings  us  to  our  next  point. 
In  order  tO'  formi  a  compound,  two  different  kinds  of 
atoms  must  have  an  attraction  for  each  other.  There  is 
no  attraction  between  oxygen  and  nitrogen ;  but  there  is 
great  attraction  between  oxygen  and  carbon,  and  when 
they  get  a  chance  they  rush  together  like  long  separated 
overs.  Anthracite  coal  is  almost  pure  carbon.  So  is  char- 
coal. Soft  coal  consists  of  carbon  with  which  various 
other  things  are  united,  one  of  them  being  hydrogen. 
This  is  interesting  and  important,  because  it  accounts  for 
a  curious  thing  in  firing  up  boilers  with  soft  coal.  We 
have  already  said  that  water  is  oxygen  united  with  hydro- 
gen. When  soft  coal  burns,  not  only  does  the  carbon 
unite  with  oxygen,  but  the  hydrogen  unites  with  oxygen 
and  forms  water,  or  steam.  While  the  boilers  are  cold 
they  will  condense  the  water  or  steam,  in  the  smoke,  just 
as  a  cold  plate  in  a  steamy  room  will  condense  water  from 
the  steamy  air,  so  sweating. 

Now  the  scientists  suppose  that  two  or  three  atom^ 


Il8  YOUNG  engineers'   GUIDE. 

stick  together  by  reason  of  their  attraction  for  each  other 
and  form  molecules.  These  molecules  in  turn  stick  to- 
gether and  form  liquids  and  solids.  The  tighter  they 
stick,  the  harder  the  substance.  At  the  same  time,  these 
molecules  are  more  or  less  loose,  and  are  constantly  mov- 
ing back  and  forth.  In  a  solid  like  iron  they  move  very 
little;  but  a  current  of  electricity  through  iron  makes  the 
molecules  move  in  a  peculiar  way.  In  a  liquid  like  water, 
the  molecules  cling  together  very  loosely,  and  may  easily 
be  pulled  apart.  In  any  gas,  like  air  or  steam,  the  mole- 
cules are  entirely  disconnected,  and  are  constantly  trying 
to  get  farther  apart. 

Heat,  says  the  scientist,  is  nothing  more  or  less  than 
the  movement  of  the  molecules  back  and  forth.  Heat  up 
a  piece  of  iron  in  a  hot  furnace,  and  the  molecules  keep 
getting  further  and  further  apart,  and  the  iron  gets  softer 
and  softer,  till  it  becomes  a  liquid.  If  we  take  some  liquid 
like  water  and  heat  it,  the  molecules  get  farther  and  far- 
ther apart,  till  the  water  boils,  as  we  say,  or  turns  into 
steam.  As  steam  the  molecules  have  broken  apart  en- 
tirely, and  are  beating  back  and  forth  so  rapidly  that  they 
have  a  tendency  to  push  each  other  farther  and  farther 
apart.  This  pushing  tendency  is  the  cause  of  steam  pres- 
sure. It  also  explains  why  steam  has  an  expansive 
power. 

Heat,  then,  is  the  movement  of  the  molecules  back  and 
forth.  There  are  three  fixed  ranges  in  which  they  move ; 
the  small  range  makes  a  solid ;  the  next  range  makes  a 
liquid ;  the  third  range  makes  a  gas,  such  as  steam.  These 
three  states  of  matter  as  affected  by  heat  are  very  sharp 
and  definite.  The  point  at  which  a  solid  turns  to  a  liquid 
is  called  the  melting  point.  The  melting  point  of  ice  is 
32°  Fahr.  The  point  at  which  it  turns  to  a  gas  is  called 
the  boiling  point.  With  water  that  is  212"  Fahr.  The 
general  tendency  of  heat  is  to  push  apart,  or  expand ; 
and  when  the  heat  is  taken  away  the  substances  contract. 

Let  us  consider  our  steam  boiler.  We  saw  that  some 
different  kinds  of  atoms  have  a  strong  tendencv  to  rush 
together;  for  example,  oxygen  and  carbon.  The  air  is 
full  of  oxygen,  and  coal  and  wood  are  full  of  carbon. 
When  they   are   raised  to   a   certain   temperature,   and 


ECONOMY   RUNNING   FARM   ENGINE.  II9 

the  molecules  get  loose  enough  so  that  they  can  tear 
themselves  away  from  whatever  they  are  attached  to, 
they  rush  together  with  terrible  force,  which  sets  all 
surrounding  molecules  to  vibrating  faster  than  ever.  This 
means  that  heat  is  given  out. 

Another  important  thing  is  that  when  a  solid  changes 
to  a  liquid,  or  a  liquid  to  a  gas,  it  must  take  up  a  certain 
amount  of  heat  to  keep  the  molecules  always  just  so  far 
apart.  That  heat  is  said  to  become  latent,  for  it  will  not 
show  in  a  thermometer,  it  will  not  cause  anything  to  ex- 
pand, nor  will  it  do  any  work.  It  merely  serves  to  hold 
the  molecules  just  so  far  apart. 

HOW   ENERGY  IS    LOST. 

We  may  now  see  some  of  the  ways  in  which  energy  is 
lost.  First,  the  air  which  goes  into  the  firebox  consists 
of  nitrogen  as  well  as  oxygen.  That  nitrogen  is  only  in 
the  way,  and  takes  heat  from  the  fire,  which  it  carries 
out  at  the  smokestack. 

Again,  if  the  air  cannot  get  through  the  bed  of  coals 
easily  enough,  or  there  is  not  enough  of  it  so  that  every 
atom  of  carbon,  etc.,  will  find  the  right  number  of  atoms 
of  oxygen,  some  of  the  atoms  of  carbon  will  be  torn  oflF 
and  united  with  oxygen,  and  the  other  atoms  of  carbon, 
left  without  any  oxygen  to  unite  with,  will  go  floating  out 
at  the  smokestack  as  black  smoke.  Also,  the  carbon 
and  the  oxygen  cannot  unite  except  at  a  certain  temper- 
ature, and  when  fresh  fuel  is  thrown  on  the  fire  it  is  cold, 
and  a  good  many  atoms  of  carbon  after  being  loosened 
up,  get  cooled  off  again  before  they  have  a  chance  to 
find  an  atom  of  oxygen,  and  so  they,  too,  go  floating  off 
and  are  lost. 

If  the  smoke  could  be  heated  up,  and  there  were 
enough  oxygen  mixed  with  it,  the  loose  carbon  would 
still  burn  and  produce  heat,  and  there  would  be  an  econ- 
omy of  fuel.  This  has  given  rise  to  smoke  consumers,  and 
arranging  two  boilers,  so  that  when  one  is  being  fired  the 
heat  from  the  other  will  catch  the  loose  carbon  before  it 
gets  away  and  burn  it  up. 

So  we  have  these  points  : 

I.  Enough  oxygen  or  air  must  get  into  a  furnace  so 


I20  YOUNG  ENGINEERS'   GUIDE. 

that  every  atom  of  carbon  will  have  its  atom  of  oxygen. 
This  means  that  you  must  have  a  good  draft  and  that  the 
air  must  have  a  chance  to  get  through  the  coal  or  other 
fuel. 

2.  The  fuel  must  be  kept  hot  enough  all  the  time  so 
that  the  carbon  and  oxygen  can  unite.  Throwing  on  too 
much  cold  fuel  at  one  time  will  lower  the  heat  beyond  the 
economical  point  and  cause  loss  in  thick  smoke. 

3.  If  the  smoke  can  pass  over  a  hot  bed  of  coals,  or 
through  a  hot  chamber,  the  carbon  in  it  may  still  be 
burned.  This  suggests  putting  fuel  at  the  front  of  the 
firebox,  a  little  at  a  time,  so  that  its  smoke  will  have  to 
pass  over  a  hot  bed  of  coals  and  the  waste  carbon  will 
be  burned.  When  the  fresh  fuel  gets  heated  up,  it  may 
be  pushed  farther  back. 

From  a  practical  point  of  view  these  points  mean,  No 
dead  plates  in  a  furnace  to  keep  the  air  from  going 
through  coal  or  wood;  a  thin  fire  so  the  air  can  get 
through  easily ;  place  the  fresh  fuel  where  its  smoke  will 
have  a  chance  to  be  burned;  and  do  not  cool  off  the  fur- 
nace by  putting  on  much  fresh  fuel  at  a  time. 

(Later  we  will  give  more  hints  on  firing.) 

HOW   HEAT  IS  DISTRIBUTED. 

We  have  described  heat  as  the  movement  of  molecules 
back  and  forth  at  a  high  rate  of  speed.  If  these  heated 
molecules  beat  against  a  solid  like  iron,  its  molecules  are 
set  in  motion,  one  knocks  the  next,  and  so  on,  just  as  you 
push  one  man  in  a  crowd,  he  pushes  the  next,  and  so  on 
till  the  push  comes  out  on  the  other  side.  So  heat  passes 
through  iron  and  appears  on  the  other  side.  This  is 
called  ''conduction." 

All  space  is  supposed  to  be  filled  with  a  substance  in 
which  heat,  light,  etc.,  may  be  transmitted,  called  the 
ether.  When  the  molecules  of  a  sheet  of  iron  are  heated, 
or  set  vibrating,  they  transmit  the  vibration  through  the 
air,  or  ether.  This  is  called  "radiation."  Heat  is  "con- 
ducted" through  solid  and  liquid  substances,  and  "radi- 
ated" through  gases. 

Now  some  substances  conduct  heat  readily,  and  some 
(do  so  with  the  greatest  difficulty.     Iron  is  a  good  con- 


ECONOMY   RUNNING   FARM   ENGINE.  121 

ductor;  carbon,  or  soot  on  the  flues  of  a  boiler,  and  lime 
or  scale  on  the  inside  of  a  boiler,  are  very  poor  con- 
ductors. So  the  heat  will  go  through  the  iron  and  steel 
to  the  water  in  a  boiler  quickly  and  easily,  and  a  large  per 
cent  of  the  heat  of  the  furnace  will  get  to  the  water  in  a 
boiler.  When  a  boiler  is  old  and  is  clogged  with  soot 
and  coated  with  lime,  the  heat  cannot  get  through  easily, 
and  goes  off  in  the  smokestack.  The  air  coming  out  of 
the  smokestack  will  be  much  hotter ;  and  that  extra  heat 
is  lost. 

Iron  is  a  good  radiator,  too.  So  if  the  outer  shell  of  a 
boiler  is  exposed  to  the  air,  a  great  deal  of  heat  will  run 
off  into  space  and  be  lost.  Here,  then,  is  where  you  need 
a  non-conductor,  as  it  is  called,  such  as  lime,  wood,  or 
the  like. 

Economy  says,  cover  the  outside  of  a  boiler  shell  with 
a  non-conductor.  This  may  be  brickwork  in  a  set  boiler ; 
in  a  traction  boiler  it  means  a  jacket  of  wood,  plaster, 
hair,  or  the  like.  The  steam  pipe,  if  it  passes  through 
outer  air,  should  be  covered  with  felt;  and  the  steam 
cylinder  ought  to  have  its  jacket,  too. 

At  the  same  time  all  soot  and  all  scale  should  be  scrup- 
ulously cleaned  away. 

PROPERTIES  OF  STEAM. 

As  we  have  already  seen,  steam  is  a  gas.  It  is  slightly 
blue  in  color,  just  as  the  water  in  the  ocean  is  blue,  or  the 
air  in  the  sky. 

We  must  distinguish  between  steam  and  vapor.  Vapor 
is  small  particles  of  water  hanging  in  the  air.  They  seem 
to  stick  to  the  molecules  composing  the  air,  or  hang  there 
in  minute  drops.  Water  hanging  in  the  air  is,  of  course, 
water  still.  Its  molecules  do  not  have  the  movement  that 
the  molecules  of  a  true  gas  do,  such  as  steam  is.  Steam, 
moreover,  has  absorbed  latent  heat,  and  has  expansive 
force ;  but  vapor  has  no  latent  heat,  and  no  expansive 
force.  So  vapor  is  dead  and  lifeless,  while  steam  is  live 
and  full  of  energy  to  do  work. 

When  vapor  gets  mixed  with  steam  it  is  only  in  the 
way;   it  is  a  sort  of  dead  weight  that  must  be  carried; 


122  YOUNG  ENJGINEERS     GUIDE. 

and  the  steam  power  is  diminished  by  having  vapor  mixed 
with  it. 

Now  all  steam  as  it  bubbles  up  through  water  in  boil- 
ing takes  up  with  it  a  certain  amount  of  vapor.  Such 
steam  is  called  "wet"  steam.  When  the  vapor  is  no 
longer  in  it,  the  steam  is  called  "dry"  steam.  It  is  dry 
steam  that  does  the  best  work,  and  that  every  engineer 
wants  to  get. 

While  water  will  be  taken  up  to  great  heights  in  the 
air  and  form  clouds,  in  steam  it  will  not  rise  very 
much,  and  at  a  certain  height  above  the  level  of  the  water 
in  a  boiler  the  steam  will  be  much  drier  than  near  the 
surface.  For  this  reason  steam  domes  have  been  devised, 
so  that  the  steam  may  be  taken  out  at  a  point  as  high  as 
possible  above  the  water  in  the  boiler,  and  so  be  as  dry 
as  possible.  Also  "dry  tubes"  have  been  devised,  which 
let  the  steam  pass  through  many  small  holes  that  serve 
to  keep  back  the  water  to  a  certain  extent. 

However,  there  will  be  more  or  less  moisture  in  all 
steam  until  it  has  been  superheated,  as  it  is  called.  This 
may  be  done  by  passing  it  through  the  hot  part  of  the 
furnace,  where  the  added  heat  will  turn  all  the  moisture 
in  the  steam  into  steam,  and  we  shall  have  perfectly  dry 
steam. 

The  moment,  however,  that  steam  goes  through  a  cold 
pipe,  or  one  cooled  by  radiation,  or  goes  into  a  cold 
cylinder,  or  a  cylinder  cooled  by  radiation,  some  of  the 
steam  will  turn  to  water,  or  condense,  as  it  is  called.  So 
we  have  the  same  trouble  again. 

Much  moisture  passing  into  the  cylinder  with  the  steam 
is  called  "priming."  In  that  case  the  dead  weight  of 
water  has  become  so  great  as  to  kill  a  great  part  of  the 
steam  power. 

HOW  TO  USE  THE  EXPANSIVE  POWER  OF  STEAM. 

We  have  said  that  the  molecules  in  steam  are  always 
trying  to  get  farther  and  farther  apart.  If  they  are  free 
in  the  air,  they  will  soon  scatter;  but  if  they  are  con- 
fined in  a  boiler  or  cylinder  they  rnerdy  push  out  in  every 
direction,  forming  "pressure." 


ECONOMY    RUNNING   FARM    ENGINE.  I23 

When  steam  is  let  into  the  cyHnder  it  has  the  whole 
accumulated  pressure  in  the  boiler  behind  it,  and  of  course 
that  exerts  a  strong  push  on  the  piston.  Shut  off  the 
boiler  pressure  and  the  steam  in  the  cylinder  will  still 
have  its  own  natural  tendency  to  expand.  As  the  space 
in  the  cylinder  grows  larger  with  the  movement  of  the 
piston  from  end  to  end,  the  expansive  power  of  the  steam 
becomes  less  and  less,  of  course.  However,  every  little 
helps,  and  the  push  this  lessened  expansive  force  exerts 
on  the  piston  is  so  much  energy  saved.  If  the  full  boiler 
pressure  is  kept  on  the  piston  the  whole  length  of  the 
stroke,  and  then  the  exhaust  port  is  immediately  opened, 
all  this  expansive  energy  of  the  steam  is  lost.  It  escapes 
through  the  exhaust  nozzle  into  the  smokestack  and  is 
gone.  Possibly  it  cannot  get  out  quickly  enough,  and 
causes  back  pressure  on  the  cylinder  when  the  piston 
begins  its  return  stroke,  so  reducing  the  power  of  the 
engine. 

To  save  this  the  skilled  engineer  ''notches  up"  his  re- 
verse lever,  as  they  say.  The  reverse  lever  controls  the 
valve  travel.  When  the  lever  is  in  the  last  notch  the 
valve  has  its  full  travel.  When  the  lever  is  in  the  center 
notch  the  Valve  has  no  travel  at  all,  and  no  steam  can 
get  into  the  cylinder ;  on  the  other  side  the  lever  allows 
the  valve  to  travel  gradually  more  and  more  in  the  oppo- 
site direction,  so  reversing  the  engine. 

As  the  change  from  one  direction  to  the  other  direction 
is,  of  course,  gradual,  the  valve  movement  is  shortened 
by  degrees,  and  lets  steam  into  the  cylinder  for  a  cor- 
respondingly less  time.  At  its  full  travel  it  perhaps  lets 
steam  into  the  cylinder  for  three-quarters  of  its  stroke. 
For  the  last  quarter  the  work  is  done  by  the  expansive 
power  of  the  steam. 

Set  the  lever  in  the  half  notch,  and  the  travel  of  the 
valve  is  so  altered  that  steam  can  get  into  the  cylinder 
only  during  half  the  stroke  of  the  piston,  the  work  during 
the  rest  of  the  stroke  being  done  by  the  expansive  force 
of  the  steam. 

Set  the  lever  in  the  notch  next  to  the  middle  notch,  or 
the  quarter. notch,  and  steam  will  get  into  the  cylinder 


124  YOUNG  ENGINEERS     GUIDE. 

only  during-  a  quarter  of  the  stroke  of  the  piston,  the 
work  being  done  during  three-quarters  of  the  stroke  by 
the  expansive  force  of  the  steam. 

Obviously  the  more  the  steam  is  expanded  the  less 
work  it  can  do.  But  when  it  escapes  at  the  exhaust 
there  will  be  very  little  pressure  to  be  carried  away 
and  lost. 

Therefore  when  the  load  on  his  engine  is  light  the 
economical  engineer  will  "notch  up"  his  engine  with  the 
reverse  lever,  and  will  use  up  correspondingly  less  steam 
and  save  correspondingly  more  fuel.  When  the  load  is 
unusually  heavy,  however,  he  will  have  to  use  the  full 
power  of  the  pressure  in  the  boiler,  and  the  waste  cannot 
be  helped. 

THE   COMPOUND  ENGINE, 

The  compound  engine  is  an  arrangement  of  steam 
cylinders  to  save  the  expansive  power  of  steam  at  all 
times  by  letting  the  steam  from  one  cylinder  where  it  is 
at  high  pressure  into  another  after  it  exhausts  from  the 
first,  in  this  second  cylinder  doing  more  work  purely  by 
the  expansive  power  of  the  steam. 

The  illustration  shows  a  sectional  view  of  a  com- 
pound engine  having  two  cylinders,  one  high  pressure 
and  one  low.  The  low  pressure  cylinder  is  much  larger 
than  the  high  pressure.  There  is  a  single  plate  between 
them  called  the  center  head,  and  the  same  piston  rod  is 
fitted  with  two  pistons,  one  for  each  cylinder.  The 
steam  chest  does  not  receive  steam  from  the  boiler,  but 
from  the  exhaust  of  the  high  pressure  cylinder.  The 
steam  from  the  boiler  goes  into  a  chamber  in  the  double 
valve,  from  which  it  passes  to  the  ports  of  the  high 
pressure  cylinder.  At  the  return  stroke  the  exhaust 
steam  escapes  into  the  steam  chest,  and  from  there  it 
passes  into  the  low  pressure  cylinder.  There  may  be 
one  valve  riding  on  the  back  of  another ;  but  the  simplest 
form  of  compound  engine  is  built  with  a  single  double 
v.alve,  which  opens  and  closes  the  ports  for  both  cylinders 
at  one  movement. 

Theoretically  the   compound   engine   should    effect   a 


Economy  running  farm  engine. 


125 


genuine  economy.  In  practice  there  are  many  things  to 
operate  against  this.  Of  course  if  the  steam  pressure 
IS  low  to  start  with,  the  amount  of  pressure  lost  in  the 
exhaust  will  be  small.     But  if  it  is  very  high,  the  saving 


126  YOUNG  engineers'   GUIDE. 

in  the  low  pressure  cylinder  will  be  relatively  large.  If 
the  work  can  be  done  just  as  well  with  a  low  pressure,  it 
would  be  a  practical  waste  to  keep  the  pressure  abnor- 
mally high  in  order  to  make  the  most  of  the  compound 
engine. 

An  engine  must  be  a  certain  size  before  the  saving 
of  a  compound  cylinder  will  be  appreciable.  In  these 
days  nearly  all  very  large  engines  are  compound,  while 
small  engines  are  simple. 

Another  consideration  to  be  taken  into  account  is  thai 
a  compound  is  more  complicated  and  so  harder  to  man- 
age ;  and  when  any  unfavorable  condition  causes  loss  it 
causes  proportionately  more  loss  on  a  compound  than  on 
a  simple  engine.  For  these  and  other  reasons  compound 
engines  have  been  used  less  for  traction  purposes  than 
simple  engines  have.  It  is  probable  that  a  skilled  and 
thoroughly  competent  engineer,  who  would  manage  his 
engine  in  a  scientific  manner,  would  get  more  out  of  a 
compound  than  out  of  a  simple ;  and  this  would  be  espe- 
cially true  in  regions  where  fuel  is  high.  If  fuel  is  cheap 
and  the  engineer  unskilled,  a  compound  engine  would 
be  a  poor  economizer. 

FRICTION. 

We  have  seen  that  the  molecules  of  water  have  a 
tendency  to  stick  in  the  steam  as  vapor  or  moisture.  All 
molecules  that  are  brought  into  close  contact  have  more  or 
less  tendency  to  stick  together,  and  this  is  called  friction. 
The  steam  as  it  passes  along  the  steam  pipe  is  checked  to 
a  certain  extent  by  the  friction  on  the  sides  of  the  pipe. 
Friction  causes  heat,  and  it  means  that  the  heat  caused 
has  been  taken  from  some  source  of  energy.  The  friction 
of  the  steam  diminishes  the  energy  of  the  steam. 

So,  too,  the  fly  wheel  moving  against  the  air  suffers 
friction  with  the  air,  besides  having  to  drive  particles  of 
air  out  of  its  path.  All  the  moving  parts  of  an  engine 
w^here  one  m.etal  moves  on  another  suffer  friction,  since 
where  the  metals  are  pressed  very  tightly  together  they 
have  more  tendency  to  stick  than  when  not  pressed  so 
tightly.     When  iron  is  pressed  too  tightly,  as  under  the 


.    ECONOMY   RUNNING   FARM   ENGINE.  127 

blows  of  a  hammer  in  a  soft  state,  it  actually  welds  to- 
gether solidly. 

There  is  a  great  deal  of  friction  in  the  steam  cylinder, 
since  the  packing  rings  must  press  hard  against  the  walls 
of  the  cylinder  to  prevent  the  steam  from  getting  through. 
There  is  a  great  deal  of  friction  between  the  D  valve  and 
its  seat,  because  of  the  high  steam  pressure  on  the  back 
of  the  valve.  There  is  friction  in  the  stuffing  boxes  both 
of  the  valve  and  the  piston.  There  is  friction  at  all  the 
bearings. 

There  are  various  ways  in  which  friction  may  be  re- 
duced. The  most  obvious  is  to  adjust  all  parts  so  nicely 
that  they  will  bind  as  little  as  possible.  The  stuffing- 
boxes  will  be  no  tighter  than  is  necessary  to  prevent 
leaking  of  steam ;  and  so  with  the  piston  rings.  Journal 
boxes  will  be  tight  enough  to  prevent  pounding,  but  no 
tighter.  To  obtain  just  the  right  adjustment  requires 
great  patience  and  the  keen  powers  of  observation  and 
judgment. 

The  makers  of  engines  try  to  reduce  friction  as  much 
as  possible  by  using  anti-friction  metals  in  the  boxes. 
Iron  and  steel  have  to  be  used  in  shafts,  gears,  etc.,  be- 
cause of  the  strength  that  they  possess;  but  there  are 
some  metals  that  stick  to  each  other  and  to  iron  and  steel 
much  less  than  iron  or  steel  stick  to  each  other  when 
pressed  close  together.  These  metals  are  more  or  less 
soft ;  but  they  may  be  used  in  boxes  and  journal  bearings. 
They  are  called  anti-friction  metals.  The  hardest  for 
practical  purposes  is  brass,  and  brass  is  used  where  there 
is  much  wear.  Where  there  is  less  wear  various  alloys 
of  copper,  tin,  zinc,  etc.,  may  be  used  in  the  boxes.  One 
of  these  is  babbit  metal,  which  is  often  used  in  the  main 
journal  box. 

All  these  anti-friction  metals  wear  out  rapidly,  an.l 
they  must  be  put  in  so  that  they  can  be  adjusted  or  re- 
newed easily. 

But  the  great  anti-friction  agent  is  oil. 

Oil  is  peculiar  in  that  while  the  molecules  seem  to  stick 
tightly  together  and  to  a  metal  like  iron  or  steel,  they  roll 
around  upon  each  other  with  the  utmost  ease.    An  ideal 


128  YOUNG  engineers'   GUIDE. 

lubricator  is  one  that  sticks  so  tight  to  the  journal  that  it 
forms  a  sort  of  cushion  all  around  it,  and  prevents  any 
of  its  molecules  coming  into  contact  with  the  molecules 
of  the  metal  box.  All  the  friction  then  takes  place  be- 
tween the  different  molecules  of  oil,  and  this  friction  is 
a  minimum. 

The  same  principle  has  been  applied  to  mechanics  in 
the  ball  bearing.  A  number  of  little  balls  roll  around 
between  the  journal  and  its  box,  preventing  the  two 
metals  from  coming  into  contact  with  each  other ;  while 
the  balls,  being  spheres,  touch  each  other  only  at  a  single 
point,  and  the  total  space  at  which  sticking  can  occur  is 
reduced  to  a  minimum. 

As  is  well  known,  there  is  great  difference  in  oils. 
Some  evaporate,  like  gasoline  and  kerosene,  and  so  dis- 
appear quickly.  Others  do  not  stick  tightly  to  the  jour- 
nal, so  are  easily  forced  out  of  place,  and  the  metals  are 
allowed  to  come  together.  What  is  wanted,  then,  is  a 
heavy,  sticky  oil  that  will  not  get  hard,  but  will  always 
form  a  good  cushion  between  bearings. 

Steam  cylinders  cannot  be  oiled  directly,  but  the  oil 
must  be  carried  to  the  steam  chest  and  cylinder  in  the 
steam.  A  good  cylinder  oil  must  be  able  to  stand  a  high 
temperature.  While  it  is  diffused  easily  in  the  steam,  it 
must  stick  tightly  to  the  walls  of  the  steam  cylinder  and 
to  the  valve  seat,  and  keep  them  lubricated.  Once  it  is 
stuck  to  the  metal,  the  heat  of  the  steam  should  not 
evaporate  it  and  carry  it  away. 

Again,  a  cylinder  oil  should  not  have  any  acid  in  it 
which  would  have  a  tendency  to  corrode  the  metal. 
Nearly  all  animal  fats  do  have  some  such  acid.  So  tallow 
and  the  like  should  not  be  placed  where  they  can  corrode 
iron  or  steel.  Lard  and  suet  alone  are  suitable  for  use 
on  an  engine. 

When  it  comes  to  lubricating  traction  gears,  other 
problems  appear.  A  heavy  grease  will  stick  to  the  gears 
and  prevent  them  from  cutting ;  but  it  will  stick  equally 
to  all  sand  and  grit  that  may  come  along,  and  that,  work- 
ing between  the  cogs,  may  cut  them  badly.     So  some 


ECONOMY   RUNNING   FARM   ENGINE.  l^Q 

engineers  recommend  the  use  on  gears  of  an  oil  that  does 
not  gather  so  much  dirt. 

The  friction  of  the  valve  on  its  seat  due  to  the  pres- 
sure of  the  steam  on  its  back  has  given  rise  to  many 
inventions  for  counteracting  it.  The  most  obvious  of 
these  is  what  is  called  "the  balanced  valve."  In  the 
compound  engine,  where  the  steam  pressure  is  obtained 
upon  both  sides  of  the  valve,  it  rides  much  more  lightly 
on  its  seat — so  lightly,  indeed,  that  when  steam  pressure 
is  low,  as  in  going  down  hill  or  operating  under  a  light 
load,  plunger  pistons  must  be  used  to  keep  the  valve 
down  tight  on  its  seat. 

The  poppet  valves  were  devised  to  obviate  the  undue 
friction  of  the  D  valve;  but  the  same  loss,  of  energy 
is  to  a  certain  extent  transferred,  and  the  practical  sav- 
ing is  not  always  equal  to  the  theoretical.  On  large 
stationary  engines  rotary  valves  and  other  forms,  such 
as  are  used  on  the  Corliss  engine,  have  come  into  common 
use;  but  they  are  too  complicated  for  a  farm  engine, 
which  must  be  as  simple  as  possible,  with  least  possible 
liability  of  getting  out  of  order. 


CHAPTER  XL 

ECONOMY   IN   RUNNING  A   FARM    ENGINE. (CONT.) 

PRACTICAL  POINTS. 

The  first  practical  point  in  the  direction  of  farm  engine 
economy  is  to  note  that  the  best  work  can  be  done  only 
when  every  part  of  the  engine  and  boiler  are  in  due  pro- 
portion. If  the  power  is  in  excess  of  the  work  to  be  done 
there  is  loss ;  if  the  grate  surface  is  too  large  cold  air  gets 
through  the  fuel  and  prevents  complete  combustion,  and 
if  the  grate  surface  is  too  small,  not  enough  air  gets  in ; 
if  the  steaming  power  of  the  boiler  is  too  large,  heat  is  radi- 
ated away  that  otherwise  could  be  saved,  for  every  foot  of 
exposed  area  in  the  boiler  is  a  source  of  loss ;  if  the  steam- 
ing power  of  the  boiler  is  too  low  for  the  work  to  be 
done,  it  requires  extra  fuel  to  force  the  boiler  to  do  its 
work,  and  any  forcing  means  comparativelv  large  loss 
or  waste.  It  will  be  seen  that  not  only  must  the  engine 
and  boiler  be  built  with  the  proper  proportions,  but 
they  m/ust  be  bought  with  a  nice  sense  of  proportion  to 
the  work  expected  of  them.  This  requires  excellent 
judgment  and  some  experience  in  measuring  work  in 
horsepowers. 

GRATE  SURFACE  AND  FUEL. 

The  grate  surface  in  a  firebox  should  be  not  less  than 
two-thirds  of  a  square  foot  per  horsepower,  for  average 
size  traction  engines.  If  the  horsepower  of  an  engine  is 
small,  proportionately  more  grate  surface  will  be  needed ; 
if  it  is  large,  the  grate  surface  may  be  proportionately 
much  smaller.  An  engine  boiler  7x8x200  rev., with  100  lbs. 
pressure,  should  have  a  great  surface  not  less  than  six 
square  feet,  and  seven  would  be  better.  In  a  traction  en- 
gine there  is  always  a  tendency  to  make  the  grate  sur- 
face as  small  as  possible,  so  that  the  engine  will  not  be 
cumbersome. 

130 


ECONOMY  RUNNING  FARM   ENGINE.  I3I 

Another  reason  why  the  grate  surface  should  be  suf- 
ficiently large  is  that  forced  draft  is  a  bad  thing,  since 
it  has  a  tendency  to  carry  the  products  of  combustion  and 
hot  gases  through  the  smokestack  and  out  into  space  be- 
fore they  have  time  to  complete  combustion  and  espe- 
cially before  the  heat  of  the  gases  has  time  to  be  absorbed 
by  the  boiler  surface.  A  large  grate  surface,  then,  with 
a. moderate  draft,  is  the  most  economical. 

The  draft  depends  on  other  things,  however.  If  a 
great  deal  of  fine  fuel  is  thrown  on  a  fire,  the  air  must 
be  forced  through,  because  it  cannot  get  through  in  the 
natural  way.  This  results  in  waste.  So  a  fire  should  be 
as  open  as  possible.  Coal  should  be  ''thin"  on  the  grates ; 
wood  should  be  thrown  in  so  that  there  will  be  plenty  of 
air  spaces ;  straw  should  be  fed  in  just  so  that  it  will  burn 
up  completely  as  it  goes  in.  Moderate  size  coal  is  better 
than  small  or  fine.  Dust  in  coal  checks  the  draft.  A 
good  engineer  will  choose  his  fuel  and  handle  his  fire  so 
that  he  can  get  along  with  as  little  forced  draft  as  pos- 
sible. 

In  a  straw  burning  engine  a  good  circulation  of  air  can 
be  obtained,  if  the  draft  door  is  just  below  the  straw  fun- 
nel, by  extending  the  funnel  into  the  furnace  six  inches 
or  so.  This  keeps  the  straw  from  clogging  up  the  place 
where  the  air  enters  and  enables  it  to  get  at  the  fuel  so 
much  more  freely  that  the  combustion  is  much  more  com- 
plete. 

We  have  already  suggested  that  in  firing  with  coal,  the 
fresh  fuel  be  deposited  in  front,  so  that  the  smoke  will 
have  to  pass  over  live  coals  and  so  the  combustion  will 
be  more  complete.  Then  when  the  coal  is  well  lighted  it 
can  be  poked  back  over  the  other  portions  of  the  grate. 
This  method  has  another  advantage,  in  that  the  first  heat- 
ing is  usually  sufficient  to  separate  the  pure  coal  from  the 
mineral  substances  which  form,  clinkers,  and  most  of  the 
clinkers  will  be  deposited  at  that  one  point  in  the  grate. 
Here  they  can  easily  be  lifted  out,  and  will  not  seriously 
interfere  with  the  burning  of  the  coal  as  they  would  if 
scattered  all  over  the  grate.  Clinkers  in  front  can  easily 
be  taken  out  by  hooking  the  poker  over  them  toward  the 
back  of  the  firebox  and  pulling  them  up  and  to  the  front. 


132  YOUNG   engineers'   GUIDE. 

They  often  come  out  as  one  big  mass  which  can  be  easily 
hfted  out. 

The  best  time  to  clean  the  grate  is  when  there  is  a  good 
brisk  fire.  Then  it  will  not  cause  steam  to  go  down. 
Stirring  a  fire  does  little  good.  For  one  thing,  it  breaks 
up  the  clinkers  and  allows  them  to  run  down  on  the  grate 
bars  when  they  stick  and  finally  warp  the  bars.  If 
the  fire  is  not  stirred  the  clinkers  can  be  lifted 
out  in  large  masses.  Stirring  a  fire  also  creates  a  ten- 
dency to  choke  up  or  coke,  and  interferes  with  the  even 
and  regular  combustion  of  the  coal  at  all  points. 

The  highest  heat  that  can  be  produced  is  a  yellow 
heat.  When  there  is  a  good  yellow  heat,  forced  draft  will 
only  carry  ofif  the  heat  and  cause  waste.  It  will  not  cause 
still  more  rapid  combustion.  When  the  heat  is  merely 
red,  increased  draft  will  raise  the  temperature.  Combus- 
tion is  not  complete  until  the  flame  shows  yellow.  How- 
ever, if  the  draft  is  slight  and  time  is  given,  red  heat  will 
be  nearly  as  effective,  but  it  will  not  carry  the  heated 
gases  over  so  large  a  part  of  the  heating  surface  of  the 
boiler.  With  a  very  large  grate  surface,  red  heat  will  do 
very  well.  Certainly  it  will  be  better  than  a  forced  draft, 
or  an  efifort  at  heating  beyond  the  yellow  point. 

BOILER   HEATING  SURFACE. 

The  heat  of  the  furnace  does  its  work  only  as  the 
heated  gases  touch  the  boiler  surface.  The  iron  conducts 
the  heat  through  to  the  water,  which  is  raised  to  the  boil- 
ing point  and  turned  into  steam. 

Now  the  amount  of  heat  that  the  boiler  will  take  up 
is  directly  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  exposed  sur- 
face and  to  the  time  of  exposure.  If  the  boiler  heatin^ 
surface  is  small,  and  the  draft  is  forced  so  that  the  gases 
pass  through  rapidly,  they  do  not  have  a  chance  to  com- 
municate much  heat. 

Also  if  the  heating  surface  is  too  large,  so  that  it  can- 
not all  be  utilized,  the  part  not  used  becomes  a  radiating 
surface,  and  the  efficiency  of  the  boiler  is  impaired. 

Practice  has  shown  that  the  amount  of  heating  surface 
practically  required  by  a  boiler  is  12  to  15  square  feet  per 


ECONOMY    RUNNING   FARM    ENGINE,  133 

horsepower.  In  reckoning  heating  surface,  all  area  which 
the  heated  gases  touch  is  calculated. 

Another  point  in  regard  to  heating  surface  in  the  pro- 
duction of  steam  is  this,  that  only  such  surface  as  is  ex- 
posed to  a  heat  equal  to  turning  the  water  into  steam  is 
effective.  If  there  is  a  pressure  of  150  lbs.  the  temperature 
at  which  the  water  would  turn  to  steam  would  be  357 
degrees,  and  any  gases  whose  temperature  was  below 
357  degrees  would  have  no  effect  on  the  heating  surface 
except  to  prevent  radiation.  Thus  in  a  return  flue  boiler 
the  heated  gases  become  cooled  often  to  such  an  extent 
before  they  pass  out  at  the  smokestack  that  they  do  not 
help  the  generation  of  steam.  Yet  a  heat  just  below  357 
degrees  would  turn  water  into  steam  under  149  lbs.  pres- 
sure.   Though  it  has  work  in  it,  the  heat  is  k)st. 

Another  practical  point  as  to  economy  in  large  heating 
surface  is  that  it  costs  money  to  make,  and  is  cumbersome 
to  move  about.  It  may  cost  more  to  move  a  traction 
engine  with  large  boiler  from  place  to  place  than  the  sav- 
ing in  fuel  would  amount  to.  So  the  kind  of  roads  and  the 
cost  of  fuel  must  be  taken  into  account  and  nicely  bal- 
anced. 

However,  it  m;ay  be  said  that  a  boiler  with  certain  out- 
side dimensions  that  will  generate  20  horsepower  will  be 
more  economical  than  one  of  the  same  size  that  will  gen- 
erate only  10  horsepower.  In  selecting  an  engine,  the 
higher  the  horsepow^er  for  the  given  dimensions,  the  more 
economical  of  both  fuel  and  water. 

The  value  of  heating  surface, also  depends  on  the  ma- 
terial through  which  the  heat  must  penetrate,  and  the 
rapidity  with  which  the  heat  will  pass.  We  have  already 
pointed  out  that  soot  and  lime  scale  permit  heat  to  pass 
but  slowly  and  if  they  are  allowed  to  accumulate  will 
greatly  reduce  the  steaming  power  of  a  boiler  for  a  given 
consumption  of  fuel.  Another  point  is  that  the  thinner 
the  iron  or  steel,  the  better  will  the  heat  get  through 
even  that.  So  it  follows  that  flues,  being  thinner,  are  bet- 
ter conductors  than  the  sides  of  the  firebox.  Long  flues 
are  better  than  short  ones  in  that  the  long  ones  allow  less 
soot,  etc.,  to  accumulate  than  the  short  ones  do,  and  af- 


134  YOUNG  ENGINEERS     GUIDE. 

ford  more  time  for  the  boiler  to  absorb  the  heat  of  the 
gases. 

Again,  we  have  stated  that  heating  surface  is  valuable 
only  as  it  is  exposed  to  the  gases  at  a  sufficiently  high 
temperature.  Some  boilers  have  a  tendency  to  draw  the 
hot  gases  most  rapidly  through  the  upper  flues,  while  the 
lower  flues  do  not  get  their  proportion  of  the  heat.  This 
results  in  a  loss,  for  the  heat  to  give  its  full  benefit  should 
be  equally  distributed. 

To  prevent  the  heat  being  drawn  too  rapidly  through 
upper  flues,  a  baffle  plate  may  be  placed  in  the  smoke 
box  just  above  the  upper  flues,  thus  preventing  them  from 
getting  so  much  of  the  draft. 

Again,  if  the  exhaust  nozzle  is  too  low  down,  the  draft 
through  the  lower  flues  may  be  greater  than  through  the 
upper.  This  is  remedied  by  putting  a  piece  of  pipe  on  the 
exhaust  to  raise  it  higher  in  the  smokestack. 

EXPANSION  AND  CONDENSATION. 

We  have  already  pointed  out  that  economy  results  if 
we  hook  up  the  reverse  lever  so  that  the  expansive  force 
of  the  steam  has  an  opportunity  to  work  during  half  or 
three-quarters  of  the  stroke. 

One  difficulty  arising  from  this  method  is  that  the 
walls  of  the  cylinder  cool  more  rapidly  when  not  under 
the  full  boiler  pressure.  Condensation  in  the  cylinder  is 
a  practical  difficulty  which  should  be  met  and  overcome 
as  far  as  possible. 

High  speed  gives  some  advantage.  A  judicious  use 
of  cushion  helps  condensation  somewhat  also,  because 
when  any  gas  like  steam  or  air  is  compressed,  it  gives 
off  heat,  and  this  heat  in  the  cushion  will  keep  up  the 
temperature  of  the  cylinder.  This  cannot  be  carried  very 
far,  however,  for  the  back  pressure  of  cushion  will  reduce 
the  energy  of  the  engine  movement. 

LEAD  AND  CLEARANCE. 

Too  much  clearance  will  detract  from  the  power  of  an 
engine,  as  there  is  just  so  much  more  waste  space  to  be 
filled  with  hot  steam.  Too  little  clearance  will  cause 
pounding. 


ECONOMY   RUNNING   FARM   ENGINE.  I35 

Likewise  there  will  be  loss  of  power  in  an  engine  if 
the  lead  is  too  great  or  too  little.  The  proper  amount  of 
lead  differs  with  conditions.  A  high  speed  engine  re- 
quires more  than  a  low  speed,  and  if  an  engine  is  ad- 
justed for  a  certain  speed,  it  should  be  kept  uniformly 
at  that  speed,  as  variation  causes  loss.  The  more  clear- 
ance an  engine  has  the  more  lead  it  needs.  Also  the 
quicker  the  valve  motion,  the  less  lead  required.  Some- 
times when  a  large  engine  is  pulling  only  a  light  load 
and  there  is  no  chance  to  shorten  the  cut-off,  a  turn  of 
the  eccentric  disk  for  a  trifle  more  lead  will  effect  some 
economy. 

Cut-off  should  be  as  sharp  as  possible.  A  slow  cut-off 
in  reducing  pressure  before  cut-off  is  complete,  causes  a 
loss  of  power  in  the  engine. 

THE  EXHAUST. 

If  the  exhaust  from  the  cylinder  does  not  begin  before 
the  piston  begins  its  return  stroke,  there  will  be  back 
pressure  due  to  the  slowness  with  which  the  valve  opens. 
The  exhaust  should  be  earlier  in  proportion  to  the  slow- 
ness of  the  valve  motion,  and  also  in  proportion  to  the 
speed  of  the  engine,  since  the  higher  the  speed  the  less 
time  there  is  for  the  steam  to  get  out.  It  follows  that  an 
engine  whose  exhaust  is  arranged  for  a  low  speed  can- 
not be  run  at  a  high  speed  without  causing  loss  from 
back  pressure. 

In  using  steam  expansively  the  relative  proportion  be- 
tween the  back  pressure  and  the  force  of  the  steam  is  of 
course  greater.  So  in  using  steam  expansively  the  back 
pressure  must  be  at  a  minimum,  and  this  is  especially 
true  in  the  compound  engine.  So  many  things  affect 
this,  that  it  becomes  one  of  Jhe  reasons  why  it  is  hard 
to  use  a  compound  engine  with  as  great  economy  as  the- 
ory would  indicate. 

Another  thing,  the  smallness  of  the  exhaust  nozzle  in 
the  smokestack  affects  the  back  pressure.  The  smaller 
the  nozzle,  the  greater  the  draft  a  given  amount  of  steam 
will  create ;  but  the  more  back  pressure  there  will  be,  due 
to  the  inability  of  the  exhaust  steam  to  get  out  easily. 
So  the  exhaust  nozzle  should  be  as  large  as  circumstances 


136  YOUNG  engineers'   GUIDE. 

will  permit.  It  is  a  favorite  trick  with  engineers  testing 
the  pulling  power  of  their  engines  to  remove  the  exhaust 
nozzle  entirely  for  a  few  minutes  when  the  fire  is  up. 
The  back  pressure  saved  will  at  once  show  m  the  pulling 
power  of  the  engine,  and  every  one  will  be  surprised.  Of 
course  the  fire  couldn't  be  kept  going  long  without  the 
nozzle  on.  We  have  already  pointed  out  that  a  natural 
draft  is  better  than  a  forced  one.  Here  is  another  reason 
for  it. 

LEAKS. 

Leaks  always  cause  a  waste  of  power.  They  may  usu- 
ally be  seen  when  about  the  boiler ;  but  leaks  in  the  piston 
and  valve  will  often  go  unnoticed. 

^It  is  to  be  observed  that  if  a  valve  does  not  travel  a 
short  distance  beyond  the  end  of  its  seat,  it  will  wear  the 
part  it  does  travel  on,  while  the  remaining  part  will  not 
wear  and  will  become  a  shoulder.  Such  a  shoulder  will 
nearly  always  cause  a  leak  in  the  valve,  and  besides  will 
add  the  friction,  and  otherwise  destroy  the  economy  of 
the  engine. 

Likewise  the  piston  will  wear  part  of  the  cylinder  and 
leave  a  shoulder  at  either  end  if  it  does  not  pass  entirely 
beyond  the  steam-tight  portion  of  the  inside  of  the  cyl- 
inder. That  it  may  always  do  this  and  yet  leave  sufficient 
clearance,  the  counterbore  has  been  devised.  All  good 
engines  are  bored  larger  at  each  end  so  that  the  piston 
will  pass  beyond  the  steam-tight  portion  a  trifle  at  the 
end  of  each  stroke.  Of  course  it  must  not  pass  far  enough 
to  allow  any  steam  to  get  through. 

Self-setting  piston  rings  are  now  generally  used.  They 
are  kept  in  place  by  their  own  tension.  There  will  al- 
ways be  a  little  leakage  at  the  lap.  The  best  lap  is  prob- 
ably a  broken  joint  rather  than  a  diagonal  one.  More- 
over, as  the  rings  wear  they  will  have  a  tendency  to  get 
loose  unless  they  are  thickest  at  a  point  just  opposite  to 
the  lap,  since  this  is  the  point  at  which  it  is  necessary  to 
make  up  for  the  tension  lost  by  the  lapping. 


CHAPTER   XII. 

DIFFERENT  TYPES   OF  ENGINES. 
STATIONARY. 

So  far  we  have  described  and  referred  exclusively  to 
the  usual  form  of  the  farm  traction  engine,  which  is 
nearly  always  the  simplest  kind  of  an  engine,  except  in 
one  particular,  namely,  the  reverse  which  gives  a  variable 
cut-off.  Stationary  engines,  however,  are  worked  under 
such  conditions  that  various  changes  in  the  arrangement 


D.    JUNE   &   CO.'S   STATIONARY  FOUR-VALVE  ENGINE. 

may  be  made  which  gives  economy  in  operating,  or  other 
desirable  qualities.  We  will  now  briefly  describe  some 
of  the  different  kinds  of  stationary  engines. 

THROTTLING  AND  AUTOMATIC  CUT-OFF  TYPES. 

Engines  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  namely,  throt- 
tling and  automatic  cut-off  engines.  The  throttling 
engine  regulates  the  speed  of  the  engine  by  cutting  off 
the  supply  of  steam  from  the  boiler,  either  by  the  hand 

137 


138  YOUNG  engineers'   GUIDE. 

of  the  engineer  on  the  throttle  or  by  a  governor  working 
a  special  throttHng  governor  valve.  Railroad  locomotives 
are  throttling  engines,  and  moreover  they  have  no  gov- 
ernor, the  speed  being  regulated  by  the  engineer  at  the 
throttle  .valve.  Traction  engines  are  usually  throttling 
engines  provided  with  a  governor. 

An  automatic  cut-off  engine  regulates  its  speed  by  a 
governor  connected  with  the  valve,  and  does  it  by  short- 
ening the  time  during  which  steam  can  enter  the  cylinder. 
This  is  a  great  advantage,  in  that  the  expansive  power 
of  steam  is  given  a  chance  to  work,  while  in  the  throttling 
engine  steam  is  merely  cut  off.  The  subject  has  been 
fully  discussed  under  "Economy  in  Running  a  Farm 
Engine."  An  automatic  cut-off  engine  is  much  the  most 
economical. 

While  on  traction  engines  the  governor  is  usually  of 
the  ball  variety,  on  stationary  engines  improved  forms 
of  governors  are  also  placed  in  the  fly  wheel,  and  work 
in  various  ways,  according  to  the  requirements  of  the 
valve  gear. 

THE  CORLISS  ENGINE. 

The  Corliss  engine  is  a  type  now  well  known  and  made 
by  many  different  manufacturers.  It  is  considered  one 
of  the  most  economical  stationary  engines  made,  but 
cannot  be  used  for  traction  purposes.  It  may  be  com- 
pound, 'and  may  be  used  with  a  condenser.  It  cannot 
bQ  used  as  a  high  speed  engine,  since  the  valves  will  not 
work  rapidly  enough. 

The  peculiarity  of  a  Corliss  engine  is  the  arrangement 
of  the  valves.  It  has  four  valves  instead  of  one,  and 
they  are  of  the  semi-rotary  type.  They  consist  of  a 
small,  long  cylinder  which  rocks  back  and  forth,  so  as 
to  close  and  open  the  port,  which  is  rather  wide  and 
short  compared  to  other  types.  There  is  a  valve  at  each 
end  of  the  cylinder  opening  usually  into  the  clearance 
space,  to  admit  steam ;  and  two  more  valves  below  the 
cylinder  for  the  exhaust.  These  exhaust  valves  allow 
any  water  of  condensation  to  run  out  of  the  cylinder. 
Moreover,  as  the  steam  when  it  leaves  the  cylinder  is 


DIFFERENT  TYPES  OF   ENGINES.  I39 

much  colder  than  when  it  enters,  the  exhaust  always 
cools  the  steam  ports,  and  when  the  same  ports  are  used 
for  exhaust  and  admission  the  fresh  steam  has  to  pass 
through  ports  that  have  been  cooled  and  cause  condensa- 
tion. In  the  Corliss  engine  the  exhaust  does  not  have 
an  opportunity  to  cool  the  live  steam  ports  and  the  con- 
densation is  reduced.     This  works  considerable  economy. 

Also  the  Corliss  valves  have  little  friction  fr6m  steam 
pressure  on  their  own  backs,  since  the  moment  they  are 
lifted  from  their  seats  they  work  freely.  The  valves  are 
controlled  by  a  governor  so  as  to  make  the  automatic 
cut-off  engine. 

The  Corliss  type  of  frame  for  engine  is  often  used  on 
traction  engines  and  means  the  use  of  convex  shoes  on 
cross-head  and  concave  ways  or  guides.  In  locomotive 
type,  cross-head  slides  in  four  square  angle  guides. 

THE   HIGH   SPEED   ENGINE. 

A  high  speed  engine  means  one  in  which  the  speed  of 
the  piston  back  and  forth  is  high,  rather  than  the  speed 
of  rotation,  there  being  sometimes  a  difference.  High 
speed  engines  came  into  use  because  of  the  need  of  such 
to  run  dynamos  for  electric  lighting.  Without  a  high 
speed  engine  an  intermediate  gear  would  have  to  be 
used,  so  as  to  increase  the  speed  of  the  operating  shaft. 
In  the  high  speed  engine  this  is  done  away  with. 

As  an  engine's  power  varies  directly  as  its  speed  as 
well  as  its  cylinder  capacity  or  size,  an  engine  commonly 
used  for  ten  horsepower  would  become  a  twenty  horse- 
power engine  if  the  speed  could  be  doubled.  So  high 
speed  engines  are  very  small  and  compact,  and  require 
less  metal  to  build  them.  Therefore  they  should  be  much 
cheaper  per  horsepower. 

A  high  speed  engine  differs  from  a  low  speed  in  no 
essential  particular,  except  the  adjustment  of  parts. 
A  high  steam  pressure  must  be  used ;  a  long,  narrow 
valve  port  is  used,  so  that  the  full  steam  pressure  may 
be  let  on  quickly  at  the  beginning  of  the  stroke  when 
the  piston  is  reversing  its  motion  and  needs  power  to 
get  started  quickly  on  its  return ;  the  slide  valve  must  be 


140  YOUNG  engineers'   GUIDE. 

used,  since  the  semi-rotary  Corliss  would  be  too  wide  and 
short  for  a  quick  opening.  Some  high  speed  engines  are 
built  which  use  four  valves,  as  does  the  Corliss.  The 
friction  of  the  slide  valve  is  usually  ''balanced"  in  some 
way,  either  by  ''pressure  plates"  above  the  valve,  which 
prevent  the  steam  from  getting  at  the  top  and  pressing 
the  valve  down,  or  by  letting  the  steam  under  the  valve, 
making  it  slide  on  narrow  strips,  since  the  pressure  above 
would  then  be  reduced  in  proportion  with  the  smallness 
of  the  bearing  surface  below,  and  if  the  bearing  surface 
were  very  small  the  pressure  above  would  be  correspond- 
ingly small,  perhaps  only  enough  to  keep  the  valve  in 
place.  Some  automatic  cut-off  gear  is  almost  always 
used.  A  high  speed  engine  may  attain  900  revolutions 
per  minute,  600  being  common.  In  many  ways  it  is 
economical. 

CONDENSING    AND     NON-CONDENSING. 

In  the  traction  engine  the  exhaust  is  used  in  the  smoke- 
stack to  help  the  draft,  since  the  smokestack  must  neces- 
sarily be  short.  A  stationary  engine  is  usually  provided 
with  a  boiler  set  in  brickwork,  and  a  furnace  with  a  high 
chimney,  which  creates  all  the  draft  needed.  In  other 
words,  the  heated  gases  wasted  in  a  traction  engine  are 
utilized  to  make  the  draft. 

It  then  becomes  desirable  to  save  the  power  in  the  ex- 
haust steam  in  some  way.  Some  of  this  can  be  used  to 
heat  the  feed  water,  but  only  a  fraction  of  it. 

Now  when  the  exhaust  steam  issues  into  the  air  it 
m,ust  overcome  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  nearly 
i.S  lbs.  to  the  square  inch,  which  is  a  large  item  to  begin 
with.  This  can  be  saved  by  letting  the  steam  exhaust 
into  a  condenser,  where  a  spray  of  cold  water  or  the 
like  suddenly  condenses  the  steam  so  that  a  vacuum  is 
created.  There  is  then  no  back  pressure  on  the  exhaust 
steam,  theoretically.  Practically  a  perfect  vacuum  can- 
not be  created,  and  there  is  a  back  pressure  of  2  or  3 
lbs.  per  square  inch.  By  the  use  of  a  condenser  a  back 
pressure  of  about  12  lbs.  is  taken  off  the  head  of  the 
piston   on   its   return   stroke,   a   matter   of   considerable 


DIFFERENT  TYPES  OF  ENGINES. 


141 


economy.  But  an  immense  amount  of  water  is  required 
to  run  a  condenser,  namely,  20  times  as  much  for  a  given 
saving  of  power  as  is  required  in  a  boiler  to  make  that 


power.     So  condensers  are  used  only  where  water  is 
cheap. 

COMPOUND   AND    CROSS-COMPOUND. 

We  have  already  explained  the  economy  effected  by  the 
compound  engine,  in  which  a  large  low  pressure  cylinder 


14^ 

is  operated  by  the  exhaust  from  a  small  high  pressure 
cylinder.  In  the  cut  used  for  illustration  the  low  pressure 
cylinder  is  in  direct  line  with  the  high  pressure  cylinder, 
and  one  piston  rod  connects  both  pistons.  This  arrange- 
ment is  called  the  "tandem."  Sometimes  the  low  pressure 
cylinder  is  placed  by  the  side  of  the  high  pressure,  or  at  a 
distance  from  it,  and  operates  another  piston  and  con- 
necting rod.  By  using  a  steam  chest  to  store  the  ex- 
haust steam  and  varying  the  cut-off  of  the  two  cylinders, 
the  crank  of  the  low  pressure  may  be  at  an  angle  of 
90  degrees  with  the  crank  of  the  high  pressure,  and  there 
can  be  no  dead  center. 

When  a  very  high  pressure  of  steam  is  used  the  ex- 
haust from  the  low  pressure  cylinder  may  be  used  to 
operate  a  third  cylinder;  and  the  exhaust  from  that  to 
operate  a  fourth.  Engines  so  arranged  are  termed  triple 
and  quadruple  expansion  engines,  or  multiple  expansion. 

The  practical  saving  of  a  compound  engine  when  its 
value  can  be  utilized  to  the  full  is  10  per  cent  to  20  per 
cent.  Small  engines  are  seldom  compounded,  large  en- 
gines nearly  always. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

GAS   AND    GASOLINE    ENGINES. 

The  gas  and  gasoline  engines  (they  are  exactly  the 
same  except  that  one  generates  the  gas  it  needs  from 
gasoline,  while  the  other  takes  common  illuminating 
gas,  the  use  of  gas  or  gasoline  being  interchangeable  on 
the  same  engine  by  readjustment  of  some  of  the  parts) 
are  operated  on  a  principle  entirely  different  from  steam. 
While  they  are  arranged  very  much  as  a  steam  engine, 
the  power  is  given  by  an  explosion  of  gas  mixed  with 
air  in  the  cylinder.  Instead  of  being  a  steady  pressure 
like  that  furnished  by  steam,  it  is  a  sudden  pressure 
given  to  one  end  of  the  piston  usually  once  in  four 
strokes  or  two  revolutions,  one  stroke  being  required 
to  draw  the  gasoline  in,  the  second  to  compress  it,  the 
third  to  receive  the  e;ffect  of  the  explosion  (this  is  the 
only  power  stroke),  the  fourth  to  push  out  the  burned 
gases  preparatory  to  admitting  a  new  charge.  The  fact 
that  force  is  given  the  cylinder  at  such  wide  intervals 
makes  it  necessary  to  have  an  extra  heavy  flywheel  to 
keep  the  engine  steady,  and  the  double  cylinder  engine 
which  can  give  a  stroke  at  least  every  revolution  is  still 
better  and  is  indispensable  when  the  flywheel  cannot 
be  above  a  certain  weight. 

For  small  horsepowers,  such  as  are  required  for  pump- 
ing, feed  grinding,  churning,  etc.,  the  gas  engine  is  so 
much  more  convenient  and  so  very  much  cheaper  in 
operation  than  the  small  steam  engine  that  it  is  safe  to 
say  that  within  a  very  few  years  the  gas  engine  will 
have  completely  displaced  the  small  steam  engine.  In 
fact,  the  discovery  of  the  gas  engine  permits  the  same 
economies  for  the  small  engine  that  the  progress  in 
steam  engineering  has  made  possible  for  the  large  steam 
engine.  As  yet  the  gas  engine  has  made  little  or  no 
progress  against  the  large  steam  plant,  with  its  Corliss 

U3 


144  YOUNG  ENGINEERS*   GUIDE. 

engine,  its  triple  expansion,  its  condenser,  and  all  the 
other  appliances  which  are  not  practicable  with  the  small 
engine. 

COMPARISON    OF    STEAM    AND    GAS    ENGINES. 

The  following  points  prepared  by  an  experienced 
farm  engine  manufacturer  will  show  clearly  the  advan- 
tages of  the  gas  engine  over  the  steam  engine  for  general 
use  about  a  farm : 

In  the  first  place,  the  farmer  uses  power,  as  a  rule, 
at  short  intervals,  and  also  uses  small  power.  Should  he 
install  a  steam  engine  and  wish  power  for  an  hour  or 
two,  it  would  be  necessary  for  him,  to  start  a  fire  under 
the  boiler  and  get  up  steam  before  he  could  start  the 
engine.  This  would  take  at  least  an  hour.  At  the  end 
of  the  run  he  would  have  a  good  fire  and  good  steam 
pressure,  but  no  use  for  it,  and  would  have  to  let  the 
fire  die  out  and  the  pressure  run  down.  This  involves 
a  great  waste  of  water,  time  and  fuel.  With  a  gasoline 
engine  he  is  always  ready  and  can  start  to  work  within 
a  few  minutes  after  he  makes  up  his  mind  to  do  so,  and 
he  does  not  have  to  anticipate  his  wants  in  the  power 
line  for  half  a  day.  Aside  from  this,  in  some  states, 
notably  Ohio,  the  law  compels  any  person  operating 
an  engine  above  ten  horsepower  to.  carry  a  steam  en- 
gineer's license.  This  does  not  apply  to  a  gasoline  engine. 

Again,  the  gasoline  engine  is  as  portable  as  a  traction 
engine,  and  can  be  applied  to  all  the  uses  of  a  traction 
engine  and  to  general  farm  use  all  the  rest  of  the  year. 
At  little  expense  it  can  be  fitted  up  to  hoist  hay,  to  pump 
water,  to  husk  and  shell  corn,  to  saw  wood,  and  even 
by  recent  inventions  to  plowing.  It  is  as  good  about  a 
farm  as  an  extra  man  and  a  team  of  horses. 

A  gasoline  engine  can  be  run  on  a  pint  of  gasoline 
per  hour  for  each  horsepower,  and  as  soon  as  the  work 
is  done  there  is  no  more  consumption  of  fuel  and  the 
engine  can  be  left  without  fear,  except  for  draining  off 
the  water  in  the  water  jacket  in  cold  weather.  A  steam 
engine  for  farm  use  would  require  at  least  four  pounds 
of  coal  per  horsepower  per  hour,  and  in  the  majority  of 
cases  it  would  be  twice  that,  taking  into  consideration 


GAS  AND  GASOLINE   ENGINES.  I45 

the  amount  of  fuel  necessary  to  start  the  fire  and  that 
left  unburned  after  the  farmer  is  through  with  his  power. 
If  you  know  the  cost  of  crude  gasoline  at  your  point 
and  the  cost  of  coal,  you  can  easily  figure  the  exact 
economy  of  a  gasoline  engine  for  your  use.  To  the 
economy  of  fuel  question  may  be  added  the  labor  or 
cost  of  pumping  or  hauling  water. 

The  only  point  wherein  a  farmer  might  find  it  advan- 
tageous to  have  a  steam  phnt  would  be  where  he  is  run- 
ning a  dairy  and  wished  steam  and  hot  water  for  cleans- 
ing his  creamery  machinery.  This  can  be  largely  over- 
come by  using  the  water  from  the  jackets  which  can  be 
kept  at  a  temperature  of  about  175  degrees, "and  if  a 
higher  temperature  is  needed  he  can  heat  it  with  the 
exhaust  from  the  engine.  The  time  will  certainly  come 
soon  when  no  farmer  will  consider  himself  up  to  date 
until  he  has  a  gasoline  engine. 

Some  persons  unaccustomed  to  gasoline  may  wonder 
if  a  gasoline  engine  is  as  safe  as  a  steam  engine.  The 
fact  is,  they  are  very  much  safer,  and  do  not  require  a 
skilled  engineer  to  run  them.  The  gasoline  tank  is  usu- 
ally placed  outside  the  building,  w^here  the  danger  from 
an  explosion  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  The  only  danger 
that  may  be  encountered  is  in  starting  the  engine,  filling 
the  supply  tank  when  a  burner  near  at  hand  is  in  flame, 
etc.  Once  a  gasoline  engine  is  started  and  is  supplied 
with  gasoline,  it  may  be  left  entirely  alone  without  care 
for  hours  at  a  time  without  danger  and  without  adjust- 
ment. 

With  a  steam  engine  there  is  always  danger,  unless  a 
highly  skilled  man  is  watching  the  engine  every  moment. 
If  the  water  gets  a  little  low  he  is  liable  to  have  an  ex- 
plosion; if  it  gets  a  little  too  high  he  may  knock  out  a 
cylinder  head  in  his  engine;  the  fire  must  be  fed  ever}^ 
few  minutes ;  the  grates  cleaned.  There  is  always  some- 
thing to  be  done  about  a  steam  engine. 

So  here  is  another  point  of  great  saving  in  a  gasoline 
engine,  namely,  the  saving  of  one  man's  time.  The 
man  who  runs  the  gasoline  engine  may  give  nearly  all 
his  time  to  other  work,  such  as  feeding  a  corn-sheller, 
a  fodder  chopper,  or  the  like. 


146  YOUNG  engineers'  GUIDE. 

Kerosene  may  also  be  used  in  the  same  way  with  a 
special  type  of  gas  engine. 

The  amounts  of  fuel  required  of  the  different  kinds 
possible  in  a  gas  engine  are  compared  as  follows  by 
Roper : 

Illuminating  gas,  17  to  20  cubic  feet  per  horsepower 
per  hour. 

Pittsburg  natural  gas,  as  low  as  11   cubic  feet. 

74°  gasoline,  known  as  stove  gasoline,  one-tenth  of  a 
gallon. 

Refined  petroleum,  one-tenth  of  a  gallon. 

If  a  gas  producing  plant  using  coal  supplies  the  gas, 
one  pound  of  coal  per  horsepower  per  hour  is  sufficient 
on  a  large  engine. 

DESCRIPTION    OF   THE   GAS    OR    GASOLINE    ENGINE. 

The  gas  engine  consists  of  a  cylinder  and  piston,  pis- 
ton rod,  cross-head,  connecting  rod,  crank  and  flywheel, 
very  similar  to  those  used  in  the  steam  engine. 

There  is  a  gas  valve,  an  exhaust  valve,  and  in  con- 
nection with  the  gas  valve  a  self-acting  air  valve.  The 
gas  valve  and  the  exhaust  valve  are  operated  by  lever 
arm  or  cam'  worked  from  the  main  shaft,  arranged  by 
spiral  gear  or  the  like  so  that  it  gets  one  movement  for 
each  two  revolutions  of  the  main  shaft.  Such  an  engine 
is  called  "four  cycle"  (meaning  one  power  stroke  to  each 
four  strokes  of  the  piston),  and  works-  as  follows: 

Ais  the  piston  moves  forward  the  air  and  fuel  valves 
are  simultaneously  opened  and  closed,  starting  tor  open 
just  as  the  piston  starts  forward  and  closing  just  as  the 
piston  completes  its  forward  stroke.  Gas  and  air  are 
simultaneously  sucked  into  the  cylinder,  by  this  move- 
ment. As  the  cylinder  returns  it  compresses  the  charge 
taken  in  during  the  forward  stroke  until  it  again  reaches 
back  center.  The  mixture  in  the  Otto  engine  is  com- 
pressed to  about  70  pounds  per  square  inch.  Ignition 
then  takes  place,  causing  the  mixture  to  explode  and 
giving  the  force  from  which  the  power  is  derived.  As 
the  crank  again  reaches  its  forward  center  the  piston 
uncovers  a  port  which  allows  the  greater  part  of  the 
burnt  gases  to  escape.     As  the  piston  comes  back,  the 


GAS  AND  GASOLINE  ENGINES. 


H7 


exhaust  valve  is  opened,  enabling  the  piston  to  sweep  out 
the  remainder  of  the  burnt  gases.  By  the  time  the  crank 
is  on  the  back  center  the  exhaust  valve  is  closed  and 
the  engine  is  ready  to  take  another  charge,  having  com- 


t4§  VOUNG  ENGINEERS*  GUIDE. 

pleted  two  revolutions  or  four  strokes.  The  side  shaft 
which  performs  the  functions  of  opening  and  closing 
the  valves,  getting  its  motion  in  the  Columbus  engine 
by  a  pair  of  spiral  gears,  makes  but  one  revolution  to 
two  of  the  crank  shaft. 

Gas  engines  are  governed  in  various  ways.  One 
method  is  to  attach  a  ball  governor  similar  to  the  Waters 
on  the  steam  engine.  When  the  speed  is  too  high,  the 
balls  go  out,  and  a  valve  is  closed  or  partly  closed,  cut- 
ting off  the  fuel  supply.  Since  the  engine  takes  in  fuel 
only  once  in  four  strokes,  the  governing  cannot  be  so 
close  as  on  the  steam  engine,  since  longer  time  must 
elapse  before  the  governor  can  act. 

Another  type  of  governor  operates  by  opening  the 
exhaust  port  and  holding  it  open.  The  piston  then 
merely  draws  in  air  through  the  exhaust  port,  but  no 
gas.  This  is.  called  the  ''hit  or  miss"  governing  type. 
One  power  stroke  is  missed  completely. 

The  heat  caused  by  the  explosion  within  the  cylinder 
is  very  great,  some  say  as  high  as  3,000  degrees.  Such 
a  heat  would  soon  destroy  the  oil  used  toi  lubricate  the 
cylinder  and  make  the  piston  cut,  as  well  as  destroying 
the  piston  packing.  To  keep  this  heat  down  the  cylin- 
der is  provided  with  a  water  jacket,  and  a  current  of 
water  is  kept  circulating  around  it  to  cool  it  off. 

When  gas  is  used,  the  gas  is  passed  through  a  rubber 
bag,  which  helps  to  make  the  supply  even.  It  is  ad- 
mitted to  the  engine  by  a  valve  similar  tO'  the  throttle 
valve  on  an  engine. 

Gasoline  is  turned  on  by  a  similar  valve .  or  throttle. 
It  does  not  have  to  be  gasefied,  but  is  sucked  into  the 
cylinder  in  the  form  of  a  spray.  As  soon  as  the  engine 
is  started,  the  high  heat  of  the  cylinder  caused  by  the 
constant  explosions  readily  turns  the  gasoline  to  gas  as 
it  enters.  The  supply  tank  of  gasoline  is  placed  outside 
the  building,  or  at  a  distance,  and  stands  at  a  point  be- 
low the  feed.  A  small  pump  pumps  it  up  to  a  small 
box  or  feed  tank,  which  has  an  overflow  pipe  to  conduct 
any  superfluous  gasoline  back  to  the  supply  tank.  In 
the  gasoline  box  or  feed  tank  a  conical-shaped  basin  is 
filled  with  gasoline  to  a  certain  height,  which  can  be 


GAS  AND  GASOLINE   ENGINES.  I49 

regulated.  Whatever  this  conical  basin  contains  is  sucked 
into  the  cylinder  with  the  air.  By  regulating  the  amount 
in  the  basin  the  supply  of  gasoline  in  the  cylinder  can 
be  regulated  to  the  amount  required  for  any  given 
amount  of  work.  In  the  Columbus  engine  this  regula- 
tion is  accomplished  by  screwing  the  overflow  regulator 
rp  or  down. 

Tliere  are  two  methods  of  igniting  the  charge  in  the 
cylinder  in  order  to  explode  it.  One  is  by  what  is  called 
a  gasoline  or  gas  torch.  A  hollow  pin  or  pipe  is  fixed  in 
the  top  of  the  cylinder.  The  upper  part  of  this  pin  or 
pipe  runs  up  into  a  gasoline  or  gas  lamp  of  the  Bunsen 
type  where  it  is  heated  red  hot.  When  the  gas  and  air 
in  the  cylinder  are  compressed  by  the  back  stroke  of  the 
piston,  some  of  the  mixture  is  forced  up  into  this  pipe 
or  tube  until  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  heated  portion 
and  is  exploded,  together  with  the  rest  of  the  charge  in 
the  cylinder.  Of  course  this  tube  becomes  filled  with 
burnt  gases  which  must  be  compressed  before  the  ex- 
plosive mixture  can  reach  the  heated  portion,  and  no  ex- 
plosion is  theoretically  possible  until  the  piston  causes 
compression  to  the  full  capacity  of  the  cylinder.  The 
length  of  the  tube  must  therefore  be  nicely  regelated 
to  the  requirements  of  the  particular  engine  used. 

The  other  method  is  by  an  electric  spark  from  a  bat- 
tery. Two  electrodes  O'f  platinum  or  some  similar  sub- 
stance are  placed  in  the  compression  end  of  the  cylin- 
der. The  spark  might  be  caused  by  bringing  the  elec- 
trodes sufficiently  near  together  at  just  the  right  mo- 
ment, but  the  more  practical  and  usual  way  is  to  break 
the  current,  closing  it  sharply  by  means  of  a  lever 
worked  by  the  gearing  at  just  the  moment  the  piston 
is  ready  to  return  after  compressing  the  charge.  The 
electric  spark  is  by  long  odds  the  most  desirable  method 
of  ignition,  being  safer  and  easier  to  take  care  of,  but 
it  requires  some  knowledge  of  electricity  and  electric 
connection  to  keep  it  always  in  working  order. 

OPERATION   OF  GAS  AND  GASOLINE  ENGINES. 

To  all  intents  and  purposes  the  operation  of  a  gas  or 
gasoline  engine  is  the  same  as  that  of  a  steam  engine 


150  YOUNG  ENGINEERS     GUIDE. 

with  the  care  of  the  boiler  eliminated.  The  care  of  the 
engine  itself  is  practically  the  same,  though  the  bear- 
ings are  relatively  larger  in  a  gasoline  or  gas  engine  and 
do  not  require  adjustment  so'  often.  Some  manufacturers 
will  tell  you  that  a  gas  engine  requires  no  attention  at 
all.  Any  one  who  went  on  that  theory  would  soon  ruin 
his  engine.  To  keep  a  gasoline  engine  in  working  order 
so  as  to  get  the  best  service  from  it  and  make  it  last  as 
long  as  possible,  you  should  give  it  the  best  oif  care. 

An  engine  of  this  kind  needs  just  as  much  oiling  and 
cleaning  as  a  steam  engine.  All  bearings  must  be  lubri- 
cated and  kept  free  from  dirt,  great  care  must  be  taken 
that  the  piston  and  cylinder  are  well  lubricated.  In  addi- 
tion, the  engineer  must  see  that  the  valves  all  work 
perfectly  tight,  and  when  they  leak  in  any  way  they 
must  be  taken  out  and  cleaned.  Usually  the  valve  seats 
are  cast  separate  from  the  cylinder,  so  that  they  can  be 
removed  and  ground  when  they  have  worn. 

Also  the  water  jacket  must  be  kept  in  order  so  that  the 
cylinder  cannot  become  too  hot. 

STARTING  A   GASOLINE  ENGINE. 

-  It  is  something  of  a  trick  to  get  a  gasoline  or  gas 
engine  started — especially  a  gasoline  engine — and  some 
skill  must  be  developed  in  this  or  there  will  be  trouble. 
This  arises  from  the  fact  that  when  an  engine  has  not 
been  running  the  cylinder  is  cold  and  does  not  readily 
gasefy  the  gasoline.  At  best  only  a  part  of  a  charge  of 
gasoline  can  be  gasefied,  and  if  the  cylinder  is  very  cold 
indeed  the  charge  will  not  explode  at  all  till  the  cylinder 
is  warmed  up. 

When  preparing  to  start  an  engine,  first  see  that  the 
nuts  or  studs  holding  cylinder  head  to  cylinder  are  tight, 
as  the  heating  and  cooling  of  the  cylinder  are  liable  to 
loosen  them.  Then  oil  all  bearings  with  a  hand  oil  can, 
and  carefully  wipe  off  all  outside  grease. 

When  all  is  ready,  work  the  gasoline  pump  to  get  the 
air  out  of  the  feed  pipes  and  fill  the  reservoir. 

First,  the  engine  must  be  turned  so  that  the  piston  is 
as  far  back  as  it  will  go,  and  to  prevent  air  being  pressed 


GAS  AND  GASOLINE  ENGINES.  I5I 

back  the  exhaust  must  be  held  open,  or  a  cock  in  prim- 
ing cup  on  top  of  cyhnder  opened. 

If  gasoline  priming  is  needed,  the  gasoline  must  be 
poured  into  the  priming  cup  after  closing  the  cock  into  the 
cylinder,  for  it  would  do  no  good  to  merely  let  the  gaso- 
line run  down  into  the  cylinder  in  a  cold  stream :  it  must 
be  sprayed  in.  If  the  exhaust  has  been  held  open,  and  the 
priming  charge  of  gasoline  is  to  be  drawn  in  through  the 
regular  supply  pipe  and  valve,  the  exhaust  should  be 
closed  and  the  throttle  turned  on  to  a  point  indicated 
by  the  manufacturer  of  the  engine. 

We  .suppose  that  the  igniter  is  ready  to  work.  If  the 
hot  tube  is  used,  the  tube  should  be  hot;  if  the  electric 
igniter  is  used,  the  igniter  bar  should  be  in  position  to 
be  snapped  so  as  to  close  the  circuit  and  cause  a  spark 
when  the  charge  has  been  compressed. 

If  all  is  ready,  open  the  cock  from  which  the  supply 
of  gasoline  is  to  be  obtained,  and  at  the  same  time  turn 
the  engine  over  so  as  to  draw  the  charge  into  the  cylin- 
der. If  a  priming  cock  has  been  opened,  that  must  be 
closed  by  hand  as  soon  as  the  cylinder  is  filled  and  the 
piston  ready  to  return  for  compression.  If  the  regular 
feed  is  used,  the  automatic  valve  will  close  of  itself. 

Bring  the  flywheel  over  to  back  center  so  that  piston 
will  compress  the  charge.  With  the  flywheel  in  the  hand, 
bring  the  piston  back  sharply  two  or  three  times,  com- 
pressing the  charge.  This  repeated  compression  causes 
a  little  heat  to  be  liberated,  which  warms  up  the  cylin- 
der inside.  If  the  cylinder  is  very  cold  this  compression 
may  be  repeated  until  the  cylinder  is  sufficiently  warm 
to  ignite.  When  performing  this  preparatory  compression 
the  piston  may  be  brought  nearly  up  to  the  dead  center 
but  not  quite.  At  last  bring  it  over  the  dead  center,  and 
just  as  it  passes  over,  snap  the  electric  ignition  bar.  If 
an  explosion  follows  the  engine  will  be  started. 

If  the  hot  tube  is  used,  the  flywheel  may  be  brought 
around  sharply  each  time  so  that  the  piston  will  pass  the 
dead  center,  as  an  explosion  will  follow  complete  com- 
pression. If  the  explosion  does  not  follow,  the  flywheel 
may  be  turned  back  again  and  brought  up  sharply  past 


152 

the  dead  center.  Each  successive  compression  will  warm 
up  the  cylinder  a  little  till  at  last  an  explosion  will  take 
place  and  the  engine  will  be  started. 

More  gasoline  will  be  needed  to  start  in  cold  weather 
than  in  warm,  and  the  starting  supply  should  be  regulated 
accordingly.  Moreover,  when  the  engine  gets  to  going, 
the  cylinder  will  warm  up,  more  of  the  gasoline  will  va- 
porize, and  a  smaller  supply  will  be  needed.  Then  the 
throttle  can  be  turned  so  as  to  reduce  the  supply. 

After  the  engine  is  started,  the  water  jacket  should  be 
set  in  operation,  and  you  should  see  that  the  cylinder 
lubrication  is  taking  place  as  it  ought. 

As  the  above  method  of  starting  the  engine  will  not  al- 
ways work  well,  especially  in  cold  weather,  what  are 
called  ''self-starters"  are  used.  They  are  variously  ar- 
ranged on  dififerent  engines,  but  are  constructed  on  the 
same  general  principle.  This  is,  first,  to  pump  air  and 
gasoline  into  the  cylinder  instead  of  drawing  it  in  by  suc- 
tion. Sometimes  the  gasoline  is  forced  in  by  an  air  com- 
pression tank.  The  engine  is  turned  just  past  the  back 
center,  care  having  been  taken  to  make  sure  that  the 
stroke  is  the  regular  explosion  stroke.  This  may  be  told 
by  looking  at  the  valve  cam  or  shaft.  If  an  electric  igniter 
is  used,  it  is  set  ready  to  snap  by  hand.  If  the  tube 
igniter  is  used,  a  detonator  is  arranged  in  the  cylinder,  to 
be  charged  by  the  head  of  a  snapping  parlor  match  which 
can  be  exploded  by  hand.  Holding  the  flywheel  with  one 
hand  with  piston  just  past  back  center,  fill  the  compressed 
end  of  the  cylinder  by  working  the  pump  or  turning  on 
the  air  in  compression  tank  till  you  feel  a  strong  pressure 
on  the  piston  through  the  flywheel.  Then  snap  igniter 
or  detonator  and  the  engine  is  oflf.  If  throttle  valve  has 
not  been  opened,  it  may  now  be  immediately  opened. 

The  skill  comes  in  managing  the  flywheel  wilh  one 
hand,  or  one  hand  and  a  foot,  and  the  igniter,  etc.,  with 
the  other  hand.  Care  must  be  exercised  not  to  get  caught 
when  the  flywheel  starts  off.  The  foot  must  never  be  put 
through  the  arm  of  the  wheel,  the  wheel  merely  being 
held  when  necessary  by  the  ball  of  the  big  toe,  so  that  if 
the  flywheel  should  start  suddenly  it  would  merely  slip 


GAS  AND  GASOLINE  ENGINES.  I53 

off  the  toe  without  carrying  the  foot  around  or  unbalanc- 
ing the  engineer.  Until  one  gets  used  to  it,  it  is  better  to 
have  some  one  else  manage  the  flywheel,  while  you  look 
after  the  gasoline  supply,  igniter,  etc.  When  used  to  it, 
one  man  can  easily  start  any  gasoline  engine  up  to  15 
horsepower. 

WHAT  TO  DO  WITH  A  GASOLINE  ENGINE  WHEN  IT  DOESN't 

WORK. 
Questions  and  Ans^rers. 

Q.     If  the  engine  suddenly  stops,  what  would  you  do? 

A.  First,  see  that  the  gasoline  feed  is  all  right,  plenty 
of  gasoline  in  the  tank,  feed  pipe  filled,  gasoline  pump 
working,  and  then  if  valves  are  all  in  working  order. 
Perhaps  there  may  be  dirt  in  the  feed  reservoir,  or  the  pipe 
leading  from  it  may  be  stopped  up.  If  everything  is 
right  so  far,  examine  the  valves  to  see  that  they  work 
freely  and  do  not  get  stuck  from  lack  of  good  oil,  or 
from  use  of  poor  oil.  Raise  them  a  few  times  to  see  if 
they  work  freely.  Carefully  observe  if  the  air  valve  is 
not  tight  in  ^leeve  of  gas  valve. 

Q.  What  w.ould  be  the  cause  of  the  piston's  sticking 
in  the  cyHnder? 

A.  Either  it  was  not  properly  lubricated,  or  it  got  too 
hot,  the  heat  causing  it  to  expand. 

Q.     Are  boxes  on  a  gasoline  engine  likely  to  get  hot? 

A.  Yes,  though  not  so  likely  as  on  a  steam  engine. 
They  must  be  watcrhed  with  the  same  care  as  they  would 
be  on  a  steam  engine.  If  the  engine  stops,  turn  it  by 
hand  a  few  times  to  see  that  it  works  freely  without 
sticking  anywhere. 

Q.  Is  the  electric  sparking  device  likely  to  get  out  of 
order? 

A.  Yes.  You  can  always  test  it  by  loosening  one 
wire  at  the  cylinder  and  touching  it  to  the  other  to  see 
that  a  spark  passes  between  them.  If  there  is  no  spark, 
there  is  trouble  with  the  battery. 

Q.     How  should  the  batteries  be  connected  up? 

A.     A  wire  sho^i^d  pass  from  carbon  of  No.  i  to  cop- 


154  YOUNG  ENGINEERS     GUIDE. 

per  of  No.  2 ;  from  carbon  of  No.  2  to  copper  of  No.  3, 
etc.,  always  from  copper  to  carbon,  never  from  carbon 
to  carbon  or  copper  to  copper.  Wire  from  last  carbon 
to  spark  coil  and  from  coil  to  switch,  and  from  switch 
to  one  of  the  connections  on  the  engine.  Wire  from 
copper  of  No.  i  to  the  other  connection  on  the  engine. 
In  wiring,  always  scrape  the  ends  of  the  wire  clean  and 
bright  where  the  connection  is  to  be  made  with  any  other 
metal. 

Q.  What  precautions  can  be  taken  to  keep  batteries 
in  order? 

A.  The  connections  between  the  cells  can  be  changed 
every  few  days,  No.  i  being  connected  with  No.  3,  No. 
3  with  No.  5,  etc.,  alternating  them,  but  always  making 
a  single  line  of  connection  from  one  connection  on  cylin- 
der to  first  copper,  from  the  carbon  of  that  cell  to  copper 
of  next  cell,  and  so  on  till  the  circuit  to  the  cylinder  is 
completed.  When  the  engine  is  not  in  operation,  always 
throw  out  the  switch,  to  prevent  possible  short  circuiting. 
If  battery  is  feeble  at  first,  fasten  wires  together  for  half 
an  hour  at  engine  till  current  gets  well  started. 

Q.  Is  there  likely  to  be  trouble  with  the  igniter  in- 
side cylinder? 

A.  There  may  be.  You  will  probably  find  a  plug  that 
can  be  taken  out  so  as  to  provide  a  peep  hole.  Never  put 
your  eye  near  this  hole,  for  some  gasoline  may  escape 
and  when  spark  is  made  it  will  explode  and  put  out  your 
eye.  Always  keep  the  eye  a  foot  away  from  the  hole. 
Practice  looking  at  the  spark  when  you  know  it  is  all 
right  and  no  gasoline  is  near,  in  order  that  you  may  get 
the  right  position  at  which  to  see  the  spark  in  case  of 
trouble.  In  any  case,  always  take  pains  to  force  out  any 
possible  gas  before  snapping  igniter  to  see  if  the  spark 
works  all  right. 

O.     If  there  is  no  spark,  what  should  be  done? 

A.  Cleaij  the  platinum  points.  This  may  be  done 
by  throwing  out  switch  and  cutting  a  piece  of  pine  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  thick  and  one-half  inch  wide,  and  rub- 
bing it  between  the  points.  It  may  be  necessary  to  push 
cam  out  a  trifle  to  compensate  for  wear. 


GAS  AND  GASOLINE  ENGINES.  155 

Q.  How  can  you  look  into  peep  hole  without  endan- 
gering eyesight  ? 

A.     By  use  of  a  mirror. 

Q.     If  the  hot  tube  fails  to  work,  what  may  be  done? 

A.  Conditions  of  atmosphere,  pressure,  etc.,  vary  so 
much  that  the  length  of  the  tube  cannot  always  be  de- 
termined. If  a  tube  of  the  usual  length  fails  to  work, 
try  one  a  little  longer  or  shorter,  but  not  varying  over 
I J  inches. 

Q.  When  gas  is  used,  what  may  interfere  with  gas 
supply  ? 

A.  Water  in  the  gas  pipes.  This  is  always  true  of 
gas  pipes  not  properly  drained,  especially  in  cold  weather 
when  condensation  may  take  place.  If  water  accumu- 
lates, tubes  must  be  taken  apart  and  blown  out,  and  if 
necessary  a  drain  cock  can  be  put  in  at  the  lowest  point. 

Q.     What  trouble  is  likely  to  be  had  with  the  valves? 

A.  In  time  the  seats  will  wear,  and  must  be  taken 
out  and  ground  with  flour  or  emery. 

O.  Should  the  cylinder  of  a  gasoline  engine  be  kept 
as  cool  as  it  can  be  kept  with  running  water?, 

A.  No.  It  should  be  as  hot  as  the  hand  can  be  borne 
upon  it,  or  about  lOO  degrees.  If  it  is  kept  cooler  than 
this  the  gasoline  will  not  gasefy  well.  If  a  tank  is  used, 
the  circulation  in  the  tank  will  justify  the  temperature 
properly.  The  water  may  be  kept  at  175  degrees  of 
temperature,  and  used  for  hot  water  heating.  The  ex- 
haust gases  are  also  hot  and  may  be  used  for  heating 
by  carrying  in  pipes  coiled  in  a  hot  water  heater. 

Q.     Are  water  joints  likely  to  leak? 

A.  Yes.  The  great  heating  given  the  cylinder  is  lia- 
ble to  loosen  the  water  joints.  They  are  best  packed  with 
asbestos  soaked  in  oil,  sheets  1-16  inch  thick.  Old  pack- 
ing should  always  be  thoroughly  cleaned  off  when  new 
packing  is  put  in. 

Q.     How  may  the  bearings  be  readjusted  when  worn? 

A.  Usually  there  are  liners  to  adjust  bearing.  In 
crank  box  adjust  as  in  steam  engine  by  tightening  the 
key. 


156  YOUNG  engineers'   GUIDE. 

Q.  If  you  hear  a  loud  explosion  in  the  exhaust  pipe 
after  the  regular  explosion,  should  you  be  alarmed? 

A.  No.  All  gas  or  gasoline  engines  give  them  at 
times  and  they  are  harmless.  If  the  gas  or  gasoline  fed 
to  the  engine  is  not  sufficient  to  make  an  explosive  mix- 
ture, the  engine  will  perhaps  miss  the  explosion,  and 
live  gas  will  go  into  the  exhaust  pipe.  After  two  or  three 
of  these  have  accumulated  an  explosion  may  take  place 
and  the  burned  gases  coming  out  of  the  port  as  hot 
flames  will  explode  the  live  gas  previously  exhausted. 
Any  missing  of  the  regular  explosion  by  the  engine, 
through  trouble  with  battery,  or  the  like,  will  cause  the 
same  condition. 

Q.  When  you  get  exhaust  pipe  explosions,  what 
should  you  do? 

A.  Turn  on  the  fuel  till  the  exhaust  is  smoky.  Then 
you  know  you  have  fuel  enough  and  more  than  enough. 
If  the  explosions  still  continue,  conclude  that  the  igniter 
spark  is  too  weak,  or  does  not  take  place. 

Q.     What  precaution  must  be  taken  in  cold  weather? 

A.     The  water  must  be  carefully  drained  out  of  jacket. 

Q.  Will  common  steam  engine  cylinder  oil  do  for  a 
gasoline  engine? 

A.  No.  The  heat  is  so  great  that  only  a  special  high 
grade  mineral  oil  will  do.  Any  oil  containing  animal 
fat  will  be  worse  than  useless. 

Q.  How  can  you  tell  if  right  amount  of  gas  or  gaso- 
line is  being  fed  to  engine  to  give  highest  power? 

A.  Turn  on  as  much  as  possible  without  producing 
smoke.  A  smokeless  mixture  is  better  than  one  which 
causes  smoke. 

Q.  If  you  have  reason  to  suppose  gas  may  be  in  the 
cylinder,  should  you  try  to  start  cylinder? 

A.  No.  Empty  the  gas  all  out  by  turning  the  engine 
over  a  few  times  by  hand,  holding  exhaust  open  if  neces- 
sary. 

Q.     How  long  will  a  battery  run  without  recharging? 

A.  The  time  varies.  Usually  not  over  three  or  four 
months. 


Gas  aNd  gasoline  e:ngines.  i57 

Q.  Is  it  objectionable  to  connect  an  electric  bell  with 
an  engine  battery? 

A.     Certainly.     Never  do  it. 

Q.  If  your  engine  doesn't  run,  how  many  things  are 
likely  to  he  the  trouble  ? 

A.  Not  more  than  four — compression,  spark,  gas 
supply,  valves. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


HOW  TO  RUN"  A  THRESHING  MACHINE. 


A  threshing  machine,  though  large,  is  a  comparatively 
simple  machine,  consisting  of  a  cylinder  with  teeth  work- 
ing into  other  teeth  which  are  usually  concaved  (this 
primary  part  really  separates  the  grain  from  the  husk), 
and  rotary  fan  and  sieves  to  separate  grain  from  chaff, 
and  some  sort  of  stacker  to  carry  off  the  straw.  The 
common  stacker  merely  carries  off  the  straw  by  some 
endless  arrangement  of  slats  working  in  a  long  box ; 
while  the  so-called  '*wind  stacker"  is  a  pneumatic  de- 
vice for  blowing  the  straw  through  a  large  pipe.  It  has 
the  advantage  of  keeping  the  straw  under  more  perfect 
control  than  the  common  stacker.  The  separation  of  the 
grain  from  the  straw  is  variously  effected  by  different 
manufacturers,  there  being  three  general  types,  called 
apron,  vibrating,  and  agitating. 

The  following  list  of  parts  packed  inside  the  J.  I. 
Case  separator  (of  the  agitative  type)  when  it  is  shipped 
will  be  useful  for  reference  in  connection  with  any  type 
of  separator: 


2  Hopper  arms.  Right  and 

Left, 
I  Hopper  bottom, 

1  Hopper  rod  with  thumb 

nut, 

2  Feed  tables, 

2  Feed  table  legs, 

2  Band   cutter   stands   and 

bolts, 
I  Large  crank  shaft, 
I  Grain    auger    with    1223 

T.  pulley  and  11 54  T., 

Box, 


I  Tailings  auger, 

I  Elevator  spout, 

I  Elevator  shake  arm,  com- 
plete, 

I  Set  fish-backs,  for  straw- 
rack, 

I  Elevator  pulley,  529  T., 

I  Beater  pulley,  6-inch  1254 
T.,  or  4-inch  1255  T., 

I  Elevator  drive  pulley  1673 
T., 

I  Crank  pulley  to  drive 
grain  auger  1605  T., 


158 


HOW   TO   RUN   A  THRESHING   MACHINE.  I59 

I  Cylinder  pulley  to  drive   |  i  Belt  reel,  5016  T.,  or  1642 

crank  4-inch  973  T.,  or 

6-inch  1085  T., 
I  Cylinder   pulley   to  drive 

fan   1347  T.,   1348  T., 

or  1633  T., 
I  Fan  pulley,    1244  T.,  or 

1231  T., 
I  Belt  tightener,   complete, 

with  pulley, 


T.,  witn  crank  and  bolt, 
4  Shoe  sieves, 
4  Shoe  rods,  with  nuts  and 

washers, 
I  Conveyor  extension, 

1  Sheet  iron  tail  board, 

2  Tail  board  castings  1654 

.T.,and  1655  T. 


In  addition  to  these  are  the  parts  of  the  stacker. 

As  each  manufacturer  furnishes  all  needed  directions, 
for  putting  the  parts  together,  we  will  suppose  the  sepa- 
rator is  in  working  condition. 

A  new  machine  should  be  set  up  and  run  for  a  couple 
of  hours  before  attempting  to  thresh  any  grain.  The 
oil  boxes  should  be  carefully  cleaned,  and  all  dirt,  cin- 
ders, and  paint  removed  from  the  oil  holes.  The  grease 
cups  on  cylinder,  beater  and  crank  boxes  should  be 
screwed  down  after  being  filled  with  hard  oil,  moder- 
ately thin  oil  being  used  for  other  parts  of  the  machine. 
Before  putting  on  the  belts,  turn  the  machine  by  hand 
a  few  times  to  see  that  no  parts  are  loose.  Look  into 
the  machine  on  straw  rack  and  conveyor. 

First  connect  up  belt  with  engine  and  run  the  cylinder 
only  for  a  time.  Screw  down  the  grease  cup  lugs  when 
necessary,  and  see  that  no  boxes  heat.  Take  off  the 
tightener  pulley,  clean  out  oil  chambers  and  thoroughly 
oil  the  spindle.  Then  oil  each  separate  bearing  in  turn, 
seeing  that  oil  hole  is  clean,  and  that  pulley  or  journal 
works  freely.  The  successive  belts  may  then  be  put  on 
one  at  a  time,  until  the' stacker  belt  is  put  on  after  its 
pulleys  have  been  oiled.  Especially  note  which  belts  are 
to  run  crossed — usually  the  main  belt  and  the  stacker  belt. 
You  can  tell  by  noting  which  way  the  machinery  must 
run  to  keep  the  straw  moving  in  the  proper  direction. 

Oiling  on  the  first  run  of  a  machine  is  especially  im- 
portant, as  the  bearings  are  a  trifle  rough  and  more  liable 
to  heat  than  after  machine  has  been  used  for  some  time. 


i6o 


YOUNG  ENGINEERS     GUIDE. 


It  is  well  to  oil  a 
shaft  while  it  runs, 
since  the  motion 
helps  the  oil  to  work 
in  over  the  whole  sur- 
face. 

The     sieves,     con- 
caves,    check     board 
and    blinds  •  must   be 
adjusted  to  the  kind 
pj    of       grain       to       be 
g    threshed.    When  they 

<  have  been  so  adjust- 
'^  ed  the  machine  is 
H    ready   to  thresh. 

g      SETTING     SEPARATOR. 

5  It       is       important 

^  that  the    machine  be 

<  kept  perfectly  steady, 
H  and  that  it  be  level 
H  from  side  to  side, 
I  though  its  being  a 
^  little  higher  or  lower 
H  at  one  end  or  the 
>  other  may  not  mat- 
^  ter  much.  If  the  lev- 
g  el  sidewise  is  not  per- 
P  feet  the  grain  will 
H  have  a  tendency  to 
^  work     over     to     one 

side.  A  spirit  level 
should  be  used. 

One  or  more  of 
the  wheels  should  ]:e 
set  in  holes,  according 
to  the  unevenness  of 
the  ground,  and 
the  rear  wheels 
should  be  well  block- 
ed.      Get    the    holes 


HOW    TO   RUN    A   THRESHING    MACHINE.  l6l 

ready,  judging  as  well  as  possible  what  will  give  a  true 
level  and  a  convenient  position.  Haul  the  machine  into 
position  and  see  that  it  is  all  right  before  uncoupling  the 
engine.  If  holes  need  redigging  to  secure  proper  level, 
machine  may  be  pulled  out  and  backed  in  again  by  the 
engine.  When  machine  is  high  in  front  it  can  easily  be 
leveled  when  engine  or  team  have  been  removed,  by 
cramping  the  front  wheels  and  digging  in  front  of  one 
and  behind  the  other,  then  pulling  the  tongue  around 
square. 

Block  the  right  hind  wheel  to  prevent  the  belt  drawing 
machine  forward.  Always  carry  a  suitable  block  to 
have  one  handy. 

In  starting  out  of  holes  or  on  soft  ground,  cramp  the 
front  axle  around,  and  it  will  require  only  half  the  power 
to  start  that  would  be  required  by  a  straight  pull. 

In  setting  the  machine,  if  the  position  can  be  chosen, 
choose  one  in  which  the  straw  will  move  in  the  general 
direction  of  the  wind,  but  a  little  quartering,  so  that  dust 
and  smoke  from  engine  will  be  carried  away  from  the 
men  and  the  straw  stack.  In  this  position  there  is  less 
danger  from  fire  when  wood  is  used. 

THE  CYLINDER. 

The  cylinder  is  arranged  with  several  rows  of  teeth 
working  into  stationary  teeth  in  what  is  called  the  con- 
cave. It  is  important  that  all  these  teeth  be  kept  tight, 
and  that  the  cylinder  should  not  work  from  side  to  side. 
The  teeth  are  liable  to  get  loose  in  a  jiew  machine,  and 
should  be  tightened  up  frequently.  A  little  brine  on  each 
nut  will  cause  it  to  rust  slightly  and  help  to  hold  it  in 
place.  If  the  cylinder  slips  endwise  even  a  sixteenth  of 
an  inch,  the  teeth  will  be  so  much  nearer  the  concaves 
on  one  side  and  so  much  farther  away  from  them  on  the 
other  side.  Where  they  are  close,  they  will  crack  the 
grain ;  where  they  are  wide  apart  they  will  let  the  straw 
go  through  without  threshing  or  taking  out  the  grain. 
So  it  is  important  that  the  cylinder  and  its  teeth  run 
true  and  steady.  If  the  teeth  get  bent  in  any  way,  they 
must  be  straightened. 


l62  YOUNG  engineers'   GUIDE. 

The  speed  of  the  cyHnder  is  important,  since  its  pul- 
ley gives  motion  to  the  other  parts  of  the  machine,  and 
this  movement  must  be  up  to  a  certain  point  to  do  the 
work  well.  A  usual  speed  for  the  cylinder  pulley  is 
1,075  revolutions  per  minute,  up  to  1,150. 

There  is  always  an  arrangement  for  adjusting  the  cylin- 
der endwise,  so  that  teeth  will  come  in  the  middle.  This 
should  be  adjusted  carefully  when  necessary.  The  end 
play  to  avoid  heating  may  be  about  1-64  of  an  inch.  It 
may  be  remembered  that  the  cylinder  teeth  carry  the  straw 
to  the  concaves,  and  the  concaves  do  the  threshing. 

THE  CONCAVES. 

The  concaves  are  to  be  adjusted  to  suit  the  kind  of 
grain  threshed.  When  desiring  to  adjust  concaves,  lift 
them  up  a  few  times  and  drop  so  as  to  jar  out  dust. 
Wedging  a  block  of  wood  between  cylinder  teeth  and 
concaves  will  in  some  types  of  separator  serve  to  bring 
up  concaves  when  cylinder  is  slowly  turned  by  hand. 

There  are  from  two  to  six  rows  of  teeth  in  the  con- 
cave, and  usually  the  number  of  rows  is  adjustable  or 
variable.  Two  rows  will  thresh  oats,  where  six  are  re- 
quired for  flax  and  timothy.  Four  rows  are  commonly 
used  for  wheat  and  barley.  The  arrangement  of  rows 
of  teeth  and  blanks  is  important.  When  four  rows  are 
used,  one  is  commonly  placed  well  back,  one  front,  blank 
in  the  middle.  When  straw  is  dry  and  brittle,  cylinder 
can  be  given  "draw"  by  placing  blank  in  front.  Always 
use  as  few  teeth  and  leave  them  as  low  as  possible  to 
thresh  clean,  since  with  more  teeth  than  necessary  set 
higher  than  required  the  straw  will  be  cut  up  and  a  great 
deal  of  chopped  straw  will  get  into  the  sieves,  all  of  which 
also  requires  additional  power.  Sometimes  the  teeth  can 
be  taken  out  of  one  row,  so  that  one,  three,  or  five  rows 
may  be  used.  For  especially  difficult  grain  like  Turkey 
wheat,  a  concave  with  corrugated  teeth  may  be  used,  in 
sets  of  three  rows  each  up  to  nine  rows.  The  corrugated 
teeth  are  used  for  alfalfa  in  localities  where  much  is 
raised. 


HOW   TO  RUN   A  THRESHING   MACHINE.  163 


THE  BEATER   AND   CHECK    BOARD. 

After  the  cylinder  has  loosened  the  grain  from  the 
husk  and  straw,  it  must  still  be  separated.  Some  thresh- 
ers have  a  grate  under  the  cylinder  and  behind  it.  In 
any  case  the  beater  causes  the  heavy  grain  to  work 
toward  the  bottom,  and  the  check  board  keeps  the  grain 
from  being  carried  to  rear  on  top  of  the  straw,  where 
it  would  not  have  a  chance  to  become  separated.  If  the 
grain  is  very  heavy  or  damp,  there  may  be  a  tendency 
for  the  straw  to  stick  to  the  cylinder  and  be  carried 
around  too  far.  In  such  a  case  the  beater  should  be 
adjusted  to  give  more  space,  and  the  check  board  raised 
to  allow  the  straw  to  pass  to  the  rear  freely. 

STRAW    RACK. 

The  straw  rack  and  conveyor  carry  the  straw  and 
grain  to  the  rear  with  a  vibratory  movement,  causing 
the  grain  to  be  shaken  out.  To  do  good  work  the  straw 
rack  must  move  with  a  sufficient  number  of  vibrations 
per  minute,  say  230.  A  speed  indicator  on  the  crank 
shaft  will  show  the  number  of  vibrations  best.  Great 
care  must  be  taken  with  this  part  of  the  thresher,  or  a 
great  deal  of  grain  will  be  carried  into  the  straw.  The 
less  the  straw  is  cut  ifp,  the  better  this  portion  of  the 
machine  works ;  so  the  smallest  practicable  number  of 
teeth  in  the  concave  should  be  used. 

The  crank  boxes  and  pitmans  should  be  adjusted  so 
that  there  is  no  pounding.  If  the  rear  vibrating  arms 
drop  too  low  they  get  below  the  dead  center  and  are 
liable  to  break,  at  any  rate  causing  severe  pounding  and 
hard  running.  To  prevent  this,  the  crank  boxes  can  be 
moved  forward  by  putting  leather  between  them  and 
the  posts,  or  should  be  otherwise  adjusted.  The  trouble 
being  due  to  the  pitmans  having  worn  short,  the  pit- 
mans  may  be  lengthened  in  some  way  by  putting  pieces 
of  leather  over  the  end  or  the  like,  or  new  pitmans  may 
be  introduced. 

THE  FAN. 

The  chief  difficulty  likely  to  arise  with  the  fan  is 
blowing  over  grain.     Tq  prevent  this  blinds  are  usually 


164  yoUng  engineers   guide* 

arranged,  which  may  be  adjusted  while  the  machine  iS 
running  so  as  to  prevent  the  grain  from  being  blown 
over.  At  the  same  time  it  is  important  to  clean  the 
grain,  so  the  adjustment  should  not  go  to  one  extreme 
or  the  other. 

In  windy  weather  the  blinds  should  be  closed  more 
on  one  side  than  on  the  other.  The  speed  of  the  fan 
must  be  adjusted  to  the  requirements  of  the  locality. 

As  much  blast  should  be  used  as  the  grain  will  stand, 
and  heavy  feeding  requires  more  wind  than  light  feed- 
ing, since  the  chaff  checks  the  blast  to  a  certain  extent. 

Care  should  be  taken  that  the  wind  board  over  the 
grain  auger  does  not  get  bent,  and  it  should  be  adjusted 
so  that  the  strongest  part  of  the  blast  will  come  about 
the  middle  of  the  sieve. 

SIEVES. 

There  is  usually  one  conveyor  sieve,  which  causes  the 
grain  to  move  along,  and  shoe  sieves,  which,  are  required 
to  clean  the  grain  thoroughly.  Different  kinds  of  sieves 
are  provided  for  different  kinds  of  grain,  and  the  proper 
selection  and  adjustment  of  these  sieves  as  to  mesh,  etc., 
is  of  the  utmost  importance. 

Much  depends  on  the  way  the  sieves  are  set,  and  on 
the  rate  at  which  the  thresher  is  fed,  or  the  amount  of 
work  it  is  really  doing.  The  best  guide  is  close  observa- 
tion and  experience,  both  your  own  and  that  of  other 
threshermen. 

CONVEYOR  EXTENSION. 

This  carries  the  coarse  chaff  from  the  conveyor  sieve 
to  the  stacker.  The  conveyor  sieve  should  be  coarse 
enough  to  let  all  the  good  grain  through,  as  whatever 
is  carried  on  to  the  extension  must  be  returned  with  the 
tailings  to  the  cylinder.  This  means  so  much  waste 
work.  The  conveyor  extension  is  removable,  and  sliould 
alwavs  be  tight  before  machine  is  started.     See  that  it  is. 

When  necessary,  the  grain  may  be  run  over  a  screen, 
which  differs  from  a  sieve  in  that  the  mesh  is  small  and 
intended  to  let  dust  and  small  chaff  through  while  the 
grain    does   not   pass.     The   refuse   from  the   screen   is 


HOW    TO    RUN    A   THRESHING    MACHINE.  165 

dropped  onto  the  ground.  All  screens  have  a  tendency 
to  become  clogged,  and  in  this  condition  obstruct  the 
grain  and  wind.  It  is  desirable  not  to  use  them  except 
when  necessary,  and  if  used  they  should  be  frequently 
cleaned. 

TAILINGS  ELEVATOR. 

The  tailings  are  carried  back  to  the  cylinder  by  an 
elevator  usually  worked  with  a  chain.  This  chain  should 
be  kept  tight  enough  not  to  unhook,  yet  not  so  tight  as 
to  bind. 

To  put  the  chain  into  the  elevator,  tie  a  weight  on  a 
rope  and  drop  it  down  the  lower  part  of  the  elevator. 
The  chain  may  be  fastened  to  the  rope  and  a  man  at 
the  top  can  then  pull  the  chain  up,  while  another  feeds 
it  in  at  the  bottom.  When  chain  has  been  drawn  up  to 
the  top,  the  rope  should  be  dropped  down  upper  portion 
of  elevator  and  used  at  bottom  to  pull  chain  down  after 
it  has  been  adjusted  over  the  sprocket.  Some  one  at  the 
bottom  should  continue  to  feed  the  chain  in  as  it  is 
pulled  down,  so  that  it  will  go  into  the  elevator  straight. 
When  the  chain  has  been  pulled  through  it  may  be 
hooked  and  adjusted  to  lower  sprocket,  and  tightened 
up  by  screws  at  top.  Turn  the  chain  around  once  by 
hand  to  make  sure  there  are  no  kinks  in  it. 

The  tailings  should  be  small,  containing  no  light  chaff 
and  little  full-size  grain.  They  are  a  good  indication  of 
how  the  sieves  are  working.  If  much  good  grain  is 
coming  through,  see  if  it  gets  over  the  conveyor  sieve 
by  way  of  the  extension  to  the  tailings  auger,  or  over 
the  shoe  sieve.  If  the  sieves  are  not  right,  they  may  be 
adjusted  in  various  ways,  according  to  the  directions  of 
the  manufacturer. 

Grain  returned  in  the  tailings  is  liable  to  get  cracked 
in  the  cylinder,  and  much  chaff  in  the  tailings  chokes 
the  cylinder.  For  every  reason,  the  tailings  should  be 
kept  as  low  as  possible. 

SELF-FEEDER. 

The  self-feeder  is  arranged  to  cut  the  bands  of  the 
sheaves  and  feed  the  grain  to  the  cylinder  automatically.- 


1 66  YOUNG  engineers'  guide. 

It  has  a  governor  to  prevent  crowding  in  too  much 
grain,  and  usually  a  change  of  pulleys  for  slow  or  fast 
feeding,  as  circumstances  may  require.  In  starting  a 
new  governor  the  friction  pulley  and  inside  of  the  band 
should  have  paint  scraped  off,  and  a  little  oil  should  be 
put  on  face  of  friction  wheel.  The  carrier  should  not 
start  till  the  machine  attains  full  threshing  motion,  and 
to  prevent  this  a  few  sheaves  should  be  laid  upon  it.  The 
knife  arms  should  be  raised  or  lowered  to  adjust  them  to 
the  size  of  the  sheaves  and  condition  of  the  grain  for 
cutting  bands. 

The  cranks  and  carrier  shaft  boxes  should  be  oiled 
regularly,  but  the  friction  bands  should  not  be  oiled  after 
it  once  becomes  smooth. 

THE    WIND    STACKER. 

The  wind  stacker  is  arranged  to  swing  by  a  hand- 
wheel  or  the  like,  and  also  automatically. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  not  to  use  the  hand  moving 
apparatus  when  the  stacker  is  set  for  automatic  moving, 
as  a  break  is  liable  to  follow.  There  is  a  clutch  to  stop 
the  stacker,  however.  At  times  it  will  be  more  con- 
venient to  leave  off  the  belt  that  causes  the  automatic 
movement. 

By  the  use  of  various  pulleys  the  speed  of  the  stacker 
may  be  altered,  and  it  should  be  run  no  faster  than  is 
necessary  to  do  the  work  required,  which  will  depend  on 
the  character  of  the  straw.  Any  extra  speed  used  will 
add  to  the  cost  of  running  the  engine  and  is  a  loss  in 
economy. 

In  moving  machine  with  wind  stacker  in  place,  care 
should  be  taken  to  see  that  it  rests  in  its  support  before 
machine  moves. 

The  canvas  curtain  under  the  decking,  used  to  turn 
the  straw  into  the  hopper,  may  need  a  piece  of  woovJ 
fastened  to  its  lower  edge  to  keep  it  more  stiff  when  stiff 
rve  straw  is  passing.  The  bearings  of  the  fan  and  jack 
shafts  should  be  kept  well  lubricated  with  hard  oil,  and 
the  bevel  gears  should  be  kept  well  greased  with  axle 
grease  applied  with  a  stick.  Other  bearings  and  worm 
gear  of  automatic  device  should  be  oiled  with  soft  oil. 


HOW   TO   RUN   A   THRESHING   MACHINE.  167 

The  attached  stacker  is  simple  in  operation,  and  if  it 
is  desired  not  to  use  the  automatic  swinging  device  but 
swing  by  hand,  the  automatic  gear  may  be  thrown  out. 
An  independent  stacker  is  managed  in  much  the  same 
way. 

ATTACHMENTS. 

A  weigher,  bagger,  and  a  high  loader  are  usually  used 
with  a  separator.  Their  operation  is  simple,  and  depends 
upon  the  particular  type  or  make. 

BELTING. 

The  care  of  the  belting  is  one  of  the  most  important 
things  about  the  management  of  a  threshing  machine, 
and  success  or  failure  will  depend  largely  on  the  condi- 
tion in  which  the  belts  are  kept.  Of  course  the  hair 
side  should  be  run  next  the  band  wheel.  Once  there  was 
disagreement  among  engineers  on  this  point,  but  it  has 
been  conclusively  proven  that  belts  wear  longer  this  way 
and  get  better  friction,  for  the  simple  reason  that  the 
flesh  side  is  more  flexible  than  the  hair  side,  and  when  on 
the  outside  better  accommodates  itself  to  the  shape  of 
the  pulley.  If  the  hair  side  is  outermost,  it  will  be 
stretched  more  or  less  in  going  around  the  pulley  and  in 
time  will  crack.  Rubber  belts  must  be  run  with  the  seam 
on  the  outside. 

When  leather  belts  become  hard  they  should  be  sof- 
tened with  neatsfoot  oil.  A  flexible  belt  is_said  to  trans- 
mit considerably  more  power  than  a  hard  one. 

Pulleys  must  be  kept  in  line  or  the  belt  will  slip  oflf. 
When  pulleys  are  in  line  the  belt  has  a  tendency  to  work 
to  the  tightest  point.  Hence  pulleys  are  usually  made 
larger  in  the  middle,  which  is  called  ''crowning." 

Belts  on  a  separator  should  be  looked  over  every  day, 
and  when  any  lacing  is  worn,  it  should  be  renewed  at 
once.  This  will  prevent  breaks  during  working,  with 
loss  of  time.  Some  threshermen  carry  an  extra  set  of 
belts  to  be  ready  in  case  anything  does  break,  and  they 
assert  that  they  save  money  by  so  doing. 

Lacing  is  not  stronger  in  proportion  as  it  is  heavy.  If 
it  is  heavy  and  clumsy  it  g-ets  strained  in  going  round 


i68  YOUNG  engineers'  guide. 

the  pulley,  and  soon  gives  out.  The  ideal  way  to  lace 
a  belt  is  to  make  it  as  nearly  like  the  rest  of  the  belt  as 
possible,  so  that  it  will  go  over  the  pulleys  without  a 
jar.  The  ends  of  the  belt  should  be  cut  off  square  with 
a  try  square,  and  a  small  punch  used  for  making  holes. 
Holes  should  be  equally  spaced,  and  outside  ones  not  so 
near  the  edge  as  to  tear  out.  The  rule  is  a  hole  to  every 
inch  of  the  belt,  and  in  a  leather  belt  they  may  be  as 
close  as  a  quarter  of  an  inch  to  the  ends  without  tearing 
out.  Other  things  being  equal,  the  nearer  the  ends  the 
holes  are  the  better,  as  belt  will  then  pass  over  pulley 
more  easily.  The  chief  danger  of  tearing  is  between 
the  holes. 

A  stacker  web  belt  may  be  laced  by  turning  the  ends 
up  and  lacing  them  together  flat  at  right  angles  to  rest 
of  belt.  Rubber  or  cotton  belting  that  does  not  run  over 
idler  or  tightener  pulleys  so  that  both  sides  must  be 
smooth  may  be  laced  in  this  way.  This  lacing  lasts  two 
or  three  times  as  long  with  such  belts  as  any  other,  for 
the  reason'  that  the  string  is  not  exposed  to  wear  and 
there  is  no  straining  in  passing  round  pulleys. 

The  ordinary  method  of  lacing  a  leather  belt  is  to 
make  the  laces  straight  on  the  pulley  side,  all  running 
in  the  same  direction  as  the  movement  of  the  belt,  and 
crossing  them  on  the  outside  diagonally  in  both  direc- 
tions. When  belts  run  on  pulleys  on  both  sides,  as  they 
do  on  the  belt  driving  beater  and  crank,  and  alsoi  on 
wind  stacker,  a  hinge  lacing  may  be  made  by  crossing 
the  lacing  around  the  end  of  the  belt  to  the  next  adjacent 
hole  opposite,  the  lacing  showing  the  same  on  both 
sides.  This  allows  the  belt  to  bend  equally  well  either 
way. 

The  best  way  to  fasten  a  lacing  is  tO'  punch  a  hole 
where  the  next  row  of  lace  holes  would  come  when  the 
belt  is  cut  olff,  and  after  passing  the  lace  through  this 
hole,  bring  the  end  around  and  force  it  through  again, 
cutting  the  end  off  short  after  it  has  passed  through. 
This  hole  must  be  small  enough  to  hold  the  lace  securely, 
and  care  should  be  taken  that  it  is  in  position  to  be  used 
as  a  lace-hole  the  next  time  a  series  of  holes  is  required. 

New  belts  stretch  a  good  deal,  and  the  ends  of  the 


HOW    TO   RUN   A   THRESHING    MACHINE.  169 

lacing  should  not  be  cut  off  short  till  the  stretch  is  taken 
out  of  the  belts. 

Belting  that  has  got  wet  will  shrink  and  lacing  must 
be  let  out  before  belt  is  put  on  again.  Tight  belts  have 
been  known  to  break  the  end  of  a  shaft  off,  and  alwa}^s 
cause  unnecessary  friction. 

Cotton  or  Gandy  belting  should  not  be  punched  for 
lacing,  but  holes  made  with  a  pointed  awl,  since  punching 
cuts  some  of  the  threads  and  weakens  belt. 

HOW    TO    BECOME    A    GOOD    FEEDER. 

The  art  of  becoming  a  good  feeder  will  not  be  learned 
in  a  day.  The  bundles  should  be  tipped  well  up  against 
the  cylinder  cap,  and  flat  bundles  turned  on  edge,  so  that 
cylinder  will  take  them  from  the  top.  It  is  not  hard  to 
spread  a  bundle,  and  in  fast  threshing  a  bundle  may  be 
fed  on  each  side,  each  bundle  being  kept  pretty  well  to 
its  own  side,  while  the  cylinder  is  kept  full  the  entire 
width.  A  good  feeder  will  keep  the  straw  carrier  evenly 
covered  with  straw,  and"  will  watch  the  stacker,  tailings 
and  grain  elevator  and  know  the  moment  anything  goes 
wrong. 

WASTE. 

No  threshing  machine  will  save  every  kernel  of  the 
grain,  but  the  best  results  can  be  attained  only  by  care 
and  judgment  in  operating. 

It  is  easy  to  exaggerate  the  loss  of  grain,  for  if  a 
very  small  stream  of  grain  is  seen  going  into  the  straw 
it  will  seem  enormous,  though  it  will  not  amount  to  a 
bushel  a  day.  There  are  practically  a  million  kernels  of 
wheat  in  a  bushel,  or  600  handfuls^  and  even  if  a  handful 
is  wasted  every  minute,  it  would  not  be  enough  to  coun- 
terbalance the  saving  in  finishing  a  job  quickly: 

Of  course,  waste  must  be  watched,  however,  and 
checked  if  too  great.  First  determine  whether  the  grain 
is  carried  over  in  the  straw  or  the  waste  is  at  the  shoe 
sieve. 

If  the  waste  is  in  the  conveyor  sieve,  catch  a  handful 
of  the  chaff,  and  if  grain  is  found,  see  whether  the  sieve 
is  the  proper  mesh.     Too  high  a  speed  will  cause  the 


170  YOUNG  ENGINEERS     GUIDE. 

grain  to  be  carried  over.  If  too  many  teeth  are  used  in 
the  concave,  the  conveyor  sieve  will  be  forced  tO'  carry 
more  chaff  than  it  can  handle.  The  blast  may  be  too 
strong  and  carry  over  grain,  so  adjust  the  blinds  that 
the  blast  will  be  no  stronger  than  is  necessary  to  clean 
the  wheat  well  and  keep  sieves  free.  If  grain  is  still  car- 
ried over,  the  conveyor  sieve  may  be  adjusted  for  more 
open  work,  but  care  should  be  taken  not  to  overwork  the 
shoe  sieve.  Be  careful  that  the  wind  board  is  not  bent 
so  that  some  grain  will  go  into  the  fan  and  be  thrown 
out  of  the  machine  altogether. 

If  the  grain  is  not  separated  from  the  straw  thor- 
oughly, it  may  be  due  to  "slugging"  the  cylinder  (result  of 
poor  feeding),  causing  a  variable  motion.  It  may  also 
be  because  speed  of  crank  is  not  high  enough.  Check 
board  should  be  adjusted  as  low  as  possible  to  prevent 
grain  being  carried  on  top  of  straw.  See  that  cylinder 
and  concave  teeth  are  properly  adjusted  so  as  not  to 
cut  up  straw,  while  at  the  same  time  threshing  out  all 
the  grain.  Sometimes  heads  not  threshed  out  by  the 
cylinder  will  be  threshed  out  by  the  fan  of  the  wind 
stacker,  and  the  fault  will  be  placed  on  the  separating 
portions  instead  of  on  the  imperfect  cylinder. 

Grain  passes  through  the  cylinder  at  the  rate  of  about 
a  mile  a  minute.  The  beater  reduces  this  to  1,500  feet 
per  minute.  After  passing  the  check  board  the  straw 
moves  about  36  feet  per  minute.  At  these  three  different 
speeds  the  straw  passes  the  17  feet  length  of  the  machine 
in  about  25  seconds.  The  problem  is  to  stop  the  grain 
while  the  straw  is  allowed  to  pass  out.  Evidently  there 
must  be  a  small  percentage  of  loss,  and  there  is  always 
a  limit  as  to  what  it  will  pay  to  try  to  save.  Each  man 
must  judge  for  himself. 

BALANCING    A    CYLINDER. 

A  cylinder  should  be  so  balanced  that  it  will  come  to 
rest  at  any  point.  In  a  rough  way  a  cylinder  may  be 
balanced  by  placing  the  journals  on  two  carpenter's 
squares  laid  on  saw-horses.  Gently  roll  the  cylinder 
back  and  forth  and  every  time  it  stops,  make  a  chalk 
mark  on  the  uppermost  bar.     If  the  same  bar  comes  up 


HOW   TO   RUN   A  THRESHING    MACHINE.  171 

three  times  in  succession  it  probably  is  light,  and  a  wedge 
should  be  driven  under  center  band  at  chalk  mark. 
Continue  experimenting  until  cylinder  will  come  to  rest 
at  any  point. 

COVERING  PULLEYS. 

This  is  easily  done,  but  care  must  be  taken  that  the 
leathers  are  tight  or  they  will  soon  come  off. 

To  cover  a  cylinder  pulley,  take  off  what  remains  of 
the  old  cover,  pull  out  the  nails,  and  renew  the  wedges 
if  necessary.  Select  a  gocKl  piece  of  leather  a  little  wider 
than  face  of  pulley  and  about  four  inches  longer  than 
enough  to  go  around.  Soak  it  in  water  for  about  an 
hour.  Cut  one  end  square  and  nail  it  to  the  wedges, 
using  nails  just  long  enough  to  clinch.  Put  a  clamp 
made  of  two  pieces  of  wood  and  two  bolts  on  the  leather, 
block  the  cylinder  to  keep  it  from  turning,  and  by  means 
of  two  short  levers  pry  over  the  clamp  to  stretch  the 
leather.  Nail  to  the  next  wedges,  move  the  clamp  and 
nail  to  each  in  turn,  finally  nailing  to  the  first  one  again 
before  cutting  off.  Trim  the  edges  even  with  the  rim 
of  the  pulley. 

The  same  method  may  be  used  with  riveted  covers. 

CARE  OF  A    SEPARATOR. 

A  good  separator  ought  to  last  ten  years,  and  many 
have  been  in  use  twice  that  time.  After  the  season  is 
over  the  machine  ought  to  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and 
stored  in  a  dry  place.  Dirt  on  a  machine  holds  moisture 
and  will  ruin  a  separator  during  a  winter  if  it  is  left  on. 
It  also  causes  the  wood  to  rot  and  sieves  and  iron  work 
to  rust. 

Once  in  two  years  at  least  a  separator  ought  to  have 
a  good  coat  of  first-class  coach  varnish.  Before  varnish- 
ing, clean  O'ff  all  grease  and  oil  with  benzine  and  see  that 
paint  is  bright. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  season  give  the  machine  a 
thorough  overhauling,  putting  new  teeth  in  cylinder  if 
any  are  imperfect,  and  new  slats  in  stacker  web  or  straw 
rack  if  they  are  needed.  Worn  boxes  should  be  taken 
up  or  reba:bbitted,  and  conveyor  and  shoe  eccentrics  re- 


172  ^         YOUNG  ENGINEERS     GUIDE. 

placed  if  worn  out.  Tighten  nuts,  replace  lost  bolts, 
leaving  the  nut  always  turned  square  with  the  piece  it 
rests  on.  Every  separator  ought  to  be  covered  with  a 
canvas  during  the  season.     It  will  pay. 

The  right  and  left  sides  oi  a  threshing  machine  are 
reckoned  from  the  position,  of  the  feeder  as  he  stands 
facing  the  machine. 

In  case  of  fire,  the  quickest  way  is  to  let  the  engine 
pull  the  miachine  out  by  the  belt.  Take  blocks  away 
from  wheels,  place  a  man  at  end  of  tongue  to  steer,  and 
back  engine  slowly.  If  necessary,  men  should  help  the 
wheels  to  start  out  of  holes  or  soft  places. 

Watch  the  forks  of  the  pitchers  to  see  that  none  are 
loose  on  the  handles,  especially  if  a  self-feeder  is  used. 
A  pitchfork  in  a  separator  is  a  bad  thing. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

QUESTIONS    ASKED    ENGINEERS    WHEN     APPLYING    FOR    A 
LICENSE.* 

Q.  If  you  were  called  on  to  take  charge  of  a  plant, 
what  would  be  your  first  duty? 

A.  To  ascertain  the  exact  condition  of  the  boiler  and 
all  its  attachments  (safety  valve,  steam  gauge,  pump,  in- 
jector), and  engine. 

Q.  How  often  would  you  blow  off  and  clean  your 
boilers  if  you  had  ordinary  water  to  use? 

A.     Once  a  month.  / 

Q.  What  steam  pressure  will  be  allowed  on  a  boiler 
50  inches  diameter  ^  inch  thick,  60,000  T.  S.  1-6  of 
tensile  strength  factor  of  safety? 

A.  One-sixth  of  tensile  strength  of  plate  multiplied 
by  thickness  of  plate,  divided  by  one-half  of  the  diameter 
of  boiler,  gives  safe  working  pressure. 

Q.  How  much  heating  surface  is  allowed  per  horse 
power  by  builders  of  boilers? 

A.     Twelve  to  fifteen  feet  for  tubular  and  flue  boilers. 

Q.     How  do  you  estimate  the  strength  of  a  boiler? 

A.     By  its  diameter  and  thickness  of  metal. 

Q.     Which  is  the  better,  single  or  double  riveting? 

A.  Double  riveting  is  from  sixteen  to  twenty  per  cent 
stronger  than  single. 

Q.  How  much  grate  surface  do  boiler  makers  allow 
per  horse  power? 

A.     About  two-thirds  of  a  square  foot. 

Q.     Of  what  use  is  a  mud  drum  on  a  boiler,  if  any? 

A.     For  collecting  all  the  sediment  of  the  boiler. 

Q.     How  often  should  it  be  blown  out? 

A.     Three  or  four  times  a  day. 

♦Furnished  by  courtesy  of  a  friend  of  Aultman  &  Taylor  Co. 

173 


174  YOUNG  ENGINEERS^ 'GUIDE. 

Q.     Of  what  use  is  a  steam  dome  on  a  boiler? 

A.     For  storage  of  dry  steam. 

Q.     What  is  the  object  of  a  safety  valve  on  a  boiler? 

A.     To  relieve  pressure. 

Q.     What  is  your  duty  with  reference  to  it  ? 

A.  To  raise  it  twice  a  day  and  see  that  it  is  in  goocl 
order. 

Q.     What  is  the  use  of  check  valve  on  a  boiler? 

A.  To  prevent  water  from  returning  back  into  pun;, 
or  injector  which  feeds  the  boiler. 

Q.  Do  you  think  a  man-hole  in  the  shell  on  top  of  a 
boiler  weakens  it  any? 

A.     Yes,  to  a  certain  extent. 

Q.     What  effect  has  cold  water  on  hot  boiler  plates? 

A.     It  will  fracture  them. 

Q.     Where  should  the  gauge  cock  be  located? 

A.  The  lowest  gauge  cock  ought  to  be  placed  about 
an  inch  and  a  half  above  the  top  row  of  flues. 

Q.     How  would  you  have  your  blow-off  located? 

A.     In  the  bottom  of  mud-drum  or  boiler. 

Q.     How  would  you  have  your  check  valve  arranged? 

A.     With  a  stop  cock  between  check  and  boiler. 

Q.  How  many  valves  are  there  in  a  common  plunger 
force  pump? 

A.     Two  or  more — a  receiving  and  a  discharge  valve. 

Q.     How  are  they  located? 

A.  One  on  the  suction  side,  the  other  on  the  dis- 
charge. 

Q.  How  do  you  find  the  proper  size  of  safety  valves 
for  boilers  ? 

A.  Three  square  feet  of  grate  surface  is  allowed  for 
one  inch  area  of  spring  loaded  valves ;  or  two  square 
feet  of  grate  surface  to  one  i«ch  area  of  common  lever 
valves. 

Q.  Give  the  reasons  why  pumps  do  not  work  some- 
times ? 

A.  Leak  in  suction,  leak  around  the  plunger,  leakv 
chectc  valve,  or  valves  out  of  order,  or  lift  too  long. 

Q.  How  often  ought  boilers  to  be  thoroughly  exam- 
ined and  tested? 


QUESTIONC  APPLYING  TO  LICENSE.  I75 

A.     Twice  a  year. 

Q.     How  would  you  test  them? 

A.  With  hammer  and  with  hydrostatic  test,  using 
warm  water. 

Q.  Describe  the  single  acting  plunger  pump ;  how  it 
gets  and  discharges  its  water? 

A.  The  plunger  displaces  the  air  in  the  water  pipe, 
causing  a  vacuum  which  is  filled  by  the  atmosphere  forc- 
ing the  water  therein ;  the  receiving  valve  closes  and  the 
plunger  forces  the  water  out  through  the  discharge 
valve. 

Q.     What  is  the  most  economical  boiler-feeder? 

A.     The  (Trix)  Exhaust  Injector.* 

Q.     What  economy  is  there  in  the  Exhaust  Injector? 

A.     From  15  to  25  per  cent  saving  in  fuel. 

Q.  Where  is  the  best  place  to  enter  the  boiler  with 
the  feed  water? 

A.  Below  the  water  level,  but  so  that  the  cold  water 
can  not  strike  hot  plates.  If  injector  is  used  this  is  not 
so  material  as  feed  water  is  always  hot. 

Q.  What  are  the  principal  causes  of  priming  in  boil- 
ers? 

A.  To  high  water,  not  steam  room  enough,  miscon- 
struction, engine  too  large 'for  boiler. 

Q.  How  do  you  keep  boilers  clean  or  remove  scale 
therefrom  ? 

A.  The  best  "scale  solvent"  and  "feed  water  purifier" 
is  an  honest,  intelligent  engineer  who  will  regularly  open 
up  his  boilers  and  clean  them  thoroughly,  soaking  boilers 
in  rain  water  now  and  then. 

Q.     If  you  found  a  thin  plate,  what  would  you  do? 

A.     Put  a  patch  on  it. 

Q.     Would  you  put  it  on  the  inside  or  outside? 

A.     Inside. 

Q.     Why  so? 

A.  Because  the  action  that  has  weakened  the  plate 
will  then  set  on  the  patch,  and  when  this  is  worn  it  can  be 
repeated. 

*So  says  one  expert.     Others  may  think  otherwise. 


176  Young  engineers*  guide. 

Q.  If  you  found  several  thin  places,  what  would  you 
do? 

A.     Patch  each  and  reduce  the  pressure. 

Q.     If  you  found  a  blistered  plate? 

A.     Put  a  patch  on  the  fire  side. 

Q.     If  you  found  a  plate  on  the  bottom  buckled? 

A.     Put  a  stay  through  the  center  of  buckle. 

Q.     If  you  found  several  of  the  plates  buckled  ? 

A.     Stay  each  and  reduce  the  pressure. 

Q.     What  is  to  be  done  with  a  cracked  plate? 

A.  Drill  a  hole  at  each  end  of  crack,  caulk  the  crack 
and  put  a  patch  over  it. 

Q.  How  do  you  change  the  water  in  the  boiler  when 
the  steam  is  up? 

A.  By  putting  on  more  feed  and  opening  the  surface 
blow  cock. 

Q.  If  the  safety  valve  was  stuck  how  would  you  re- 
lieve the  pressure  on  the  boiler  if  the  steam  was  up  and 
could  not  make  its  escape? 

A.     Work  the  steam  off  with  engine  after  covering  fires 
heavy  with  coal  or  ashes,  and  when  the  boiler  is  suffi- 
ciently cool  put  safety  valve  in  working  order. 
'    Q.     If  water  in  boiler  is  suffered  to  get  too  low,  what 
may  be  the  result? 

A.  Burn  top  of  combustion  chamber  and  tubes,  per- 
haps cause  an  explosion. 

Q.     If  water  is  allowed  to  get  too  high,  what  result? 

A.  Cause  priming,  perhaps  cause  breaking  of  cylin- 
der covers  or  heads. 

Q.  What  are  the  principal  causes  of  foaming  in  boil- 
ers? 

A.     Dirty  and  impure  water. 

Q.     How  can  foaming  be  stopped? 

A.  Close  throttle  and  keep  closed  long  enough  to 
show  true  level  of  water.  If  that  level  is  sufficiently  high, 
feeding  and  blowing  off  will  usually  suffice  to  correct 
the  evil. 

Q.  What  would  you  do  if  you  should  find  your  water 
gone  from  sight  very  suddenly? 

A.     Draw  the  fires  and  cool  off  as  quickly  as  possible. 


QUESTIONS  APPLYING  TO  LICENSE.  177 

Never  open  or  close  any  outlets  of  steam  when  your  wa- 
ter is  out  of  sight. 

Q.  What  precautions  should  you  take  to  blow  down 
a  part  of  the  water  in  your  boiler  while  running  with  a 
good  fire? 

A.  Never  leave  the  blow-off  valve,  and  watch  the 
water  level. 

Q.  How  much  water  would  you  blow  off  at  once  while 
running  ? 

A.  Never  blow  off  more  than  one  gauge  of  water  at 
a  time  while  running. 

Q.  What  general  views  have  you  in  regard  to  boiler 
explosions — what  is  the  greatest  cause? 

A.  Ignorance  and  neglect  are  the  greatest  causes  of 
boiler  explosions. 

Q.  What  precaution  should  the  engineer  take  when 
necessary  to  stop  with  heavy  fires? 

A.  Close  dampers,  put  on  injector  or  pump  and  if  a 
bleeder  is  attached,  use  it. 

Q.     Where  is  the  proper  water  level  in  boilers  ? 

A.  A  safe  water  level  is  about  two  and  a  half  inches 
over  top  row  of  flues. 

Q.  What  is  an  engineer's  first  duty  on  entering  the 
boiler  room? 

A.     To  ascertain  the  true  water  level. 

Q.     When  should  a  boiler  be  blown  out  ? 

A.     After  it  is  cooled  off,  never  whil^  hot. 

Q.     When  laying  up  a  boiler  what  should  be  done  ? 

A.  Clean  thoroughly  inside  and  out ;  remove  all  oxi- 
dation and  paint  places  with  red  lead ;  examine  all  stays 
and  braces  to  see  if  any  are  loose  or  badly  worn. 

Q.  What  is  the  last  thing  to  do  at  night  before  leav- 
ing plant? 

A.  Look  around  for  greasy  waste,  hot  coals,  matches, 
or  anything  which  could  fire  the  building. 

Q.  What  would  you  do  if  you  had  a  plant  in  good 
working  order? 

A.     Keep  it  so,  and  let  well  enough  alone. 

Q.     Of  what  use  is  the  indicator? 

A.     The  indicator  is  used  to  determine  the  indicated 


178  YOUNG  engineers'   GUIDE. 

power  developed  by  an  engine,  to  serve  as  a  guide  in 
setting  valves  and  showing  the  action  of  the  steam  in 
the  cylinder. 

Q.     How  would  you  increase  the  power  of  an  engine? 

A.  To  increase  the  power  of  an  engine,  increase  the 
speed;  or  get  higher  pressure  of  steam,  use  less  expan- 
sion. 

Q.     How  do  you  find  the  horsepower  of  an  engine  ? 

A.  Multiply  the  speed  of  piston  in  feet  per  minute 
by  the  total  effective  pressure  upon  the  piston  in  pounds 
and  divide  the  product  by  33,000. 

Q.  Which  has  the  most  friction,  a  perfectly  fitted,  or 
an  imperfectly  fitted  valve  or  bearing? 

A.     An  imperfect  one. 

Q.  How  hot  can  you  get  water  under  atmospheric 
pressure  with  exhaust  steam? 

A.       12  degrees. 

Q.  Does  pressure  have  any  influence  on  the  boiling 
point  ? 

A.     Yes. 

Q.  Which  do  you  think  is  the  best  economy,  to  run 
with  your  throttle  wide  open  or  partly  shut? 

A.  Always  have  the  throttle  wide  open  on  a  governor 
engine. 

Q.  At  what  temperature  has  iron  the  greatest  tensile 
strength  ? 

A.     About  600  degrees. 

Q.  In  what  position  on  the  shaft  does  the  eccentric 
stand  in  relation  to  the  crank? 

A.  The  throw  of  the  eccentric  should  always  be  in 
advance  of. the  crank  pin. 

O.  About  how  many  pounds  of  water  are  required  to 
yield  one  horsepower  with  our  best  engines  ? 

A.     From  25  to  30. 

Q.     What  is  meant  by  atmospheric  pressure? 

A.     The  weight  of  the  atmosphere. 

Q.     What  is  the  weight  of  atmosphere  at  sea  level  ? 

A.     14.7  pounds. 

Q.  What  is  the  coal  consumption  per  hour  per  indi- 
cated horsepower? 


QUESTIONS  APi>LVlNG  TO  LICENSE.  1/9 

A.     Varies  from  one  and  a  half  to  seven  pounds. 

Q.  What  is  the  consumption  of  coal  per  hour  on  a 
square  foot  of  grate  surface? 

A.     From   lo  to  12  pounds. 

Q.  What  is  the  water  consumption  in  pounds  per 
hour  per  indicated  horsepower? 

A.     From  25  to  60  pounds. 

Q.  How  many  pounds  of  water  can  be  evaporated 
with  one  pound  of  l3est  soft  coal? 

A.     From  7  to  10  pounds. 

Q.  How  much  steam  will  one  cubic  inch  of  water 
evaporate   under  atmospheric  pressure? 

A.     One  cubic  foot  of  steam  (approximately). 

Q.     What  is  the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  fresh  water? 

A.     Sixty-two  and  a  half  pounds. 

Q.     What  is  the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  iron? 

A.     486.6  pounds. 

Q.  What  is  the  weight  of  a  square  foot  of  one-half 
inch  boiler  plate  ? 

A.     20  pounds. 

Q.  How  much  wood  equals  one  ton  of  soft  coal  for 
steam  purposes? 

A.     About  4,000  pounds  of  wood. 

Q.     How  long  have  you  run  engines? 

Q.     Have  you  ever  done  your  own  firing? 

Q.  What  is  the  source  of  all  power  in  the  steam  en- 
gine? 

A.     The  heat  stored  up  in  the  coal. 

Q.     How  is  the  heat  liberated  from  the  coal? 

A.     By  burning  it ;  that  is,  by  combustion. 

Q.     Of  what  does  coal  consist? 

A.  Carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  sulphur,  oxygen  and 
ash. 

Q.  What  are  the  relative  proportions  of  these  that 
enter  into  coal? 

A.  There  are  different  proportions  in  different  speci- 
mens of  coal,  but  the  following  shows  the  average  per 
cent :  Carbon,  80 ;  hydrogen,  5  ;  nitrogen,  i ;  sulphur,  2 ; 
oxygen,  7;  ash,  5. 


l8o  YOUNG  ENGINEERS*   GUIDE. 

Q.  What  must  be  mixed  with  coal  before  it  will 
burn  ? 

A.     Atmospheric  air. 

Q.     What  IS  air  composed  of? 

A.  It  is  composed  of  nitrogen  and  oxygen  in  the  pro- 
portion of  'j'j  of  nitrogen  to  23  of  oxygen. 

Q.  What  parts  of  the  air  mix  with  what  parts  of  the 
coal  ? 

A.  The  oxygen  of  the  air  mixes  with  the  carbon  and 
hydrogen  of  the  coal. 

Q.     How  much  air  must  mix  with  the  coal? 

A.     150  cubic  feet  of  air  for  every  pound  of  coal. 

Q.  How  many  pounds  of  air  are  required  to  burn  one 
pound  of  carbon? 

A.     Twelve. 

Q.  How  many  pounds' of  air  are  required  to  burn  one 
pound  of  hydrogen? 

A.     Thirty-six. 

Q.     Is  hydrogen  hotter  than  carbon? 

A.     Yes,   four  and  one-half  times  hotter. 

Q.     What  part  of  the  coal  gives  out  the  most  heat? 

A.  The  hydrogen  does  part  for  part,  but  as  there  is 
so  much  more  of  carbon  than  hydrogen  in  the  coal  we 
get  the  greatest  amount  of  heat  from  carbon. 

Q.     In  how  many  different  ways  is  heat  transmitted? 

A.  Three;  by  radiation,  by  conduction  and  by  con- 
vection. 

Q.  If  the  fire  consisted  of  glowing  fuel,  show  how 
the  heat  enters  the  water  and  forms  steam? 

A.  The  heat  from  the  glowing  fuel  passes  by  radia- 
tion through  the  air  space  above  the  fuel  to  the  furnace 
crown.  There  it  passes  through  the  iron  of  the  crown 
by  conduction.  There  it  warms  the  water  resting  on  the 
crown,  which  then  rises  and  parts  with  its  heat  to  the 
colder  water  by  conduction  till  the  whole  mass  of  water 
is  heated.  Then  the  heated  water  rises  to  the  surface  and 
parts  with  its  steam,  so  a  constant  circulation  of  water  is 
maintained  by  convection. 

Q.     What  does  water  consist  of? 

A.     Oxygen  and  hydrogen. 


QUESTIONS  APPLYING  TO  LICENSE.  l8l 

Q.     In  what  proportion? 

A.     Eight  of  oxygen  to  one  of  hydrogen  by  weight. 

Q.     What  are  the  different  kinds  of  heat? 

A.  Latent  heat,  sensible  heat  and  sometimes  total 
heat. 

Q.     What   is  'meant  by   latent   heat? 

A.  Heat  that  does  not  affect  the  thermometer  and 
which  expands  itself  in  changing  the  nature  of  a  body, 
such  as  turning  ice  into  water  or  water  into  steam. 

Q.  Under  what  circumstances  do  bodies  get  latent 
heat? 

A.  When  they  are  passing  from,  a  solid  state  to  a 
liquid  or  from  a  liquid  tO'  a  gaseous  state. 

Q.     How  can  latent  heat  be  recovered? 

A.  By  bringing  the  body  back  from  a  state  of  gas 
to  a  liquid  or  from  that  of  a  liquid  to  that  of  a  solid. 

Q.     What  is  meant  by  a  thermal  unit? 

A.  The  heat  necessary  to  raise  one  pound  of  water 
at  39  degrees  Fn.  i  degree  Fahrenheit.        ^ 

Q.     If  the  power  is  in  coal,  why  should  we  use  steam  ? 

A.  Because  steam  has  some  properties  which  make  it 
an  invaluable  agent  for  applying  the  energy  of  the  heat 
to  the  engine. 

Q.     What  is  steam? 

A.  It  is  an  invisible  elastic  gas  generated  from  water 
by  the  application  of  heat. 

Q.  What  are  its  properties  which  make  it  so  valuable 
to  us? 

A.  I. — The  ease  with  which  we  can  condense  it. 
2. — Its  great  expansive  power.  3. — The  small  space  it 
occupies  when  condensed. 

Q.     Why  do  you  condense  the  steam? 

A.  To  form  a  vacuum,  and  so  destroy  the  back  pres- 
sure that  would  otherwise  be  on  the  piston  and  thus  get 
more  useful  work  out  of  the  steam. 

Q.     What  is  vacuum? 

A.     A  space  void  of  all  pressure. 

Q.     How  do  you  maintain  a  vacuum  ? 

A.  By  the  steam  used  being  constantly  condensed 
by  the  cold  water  or  cold  tubes,  and  the  air  pump  as 
constantly  clearing  the  condenser  out. 


l82  YOUNG  engineers'  GUIDE. 

Q.     Why  does   condensing    the    used    steam    form    a 


vacuum  r 

A.  Because  a  cubic  foot  of  steam,  at  atmospheric 
pressure,  shrinks  into  about  a  cubic  inch  of  water. 

Q.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  term  horse 
power  ? 

A.  A  horse  power  is  equivalent  to  raising  33,000 
pounds  one  foot  per  minute,  or  550  pounds  raised  one 
foot  per  second. 

Q.  How  do  you  calculate  the  horse  power  of  tubu- 
lar or  flue  boilers? 

A.  For  tubular  boilers,  multiply  the  square  of  the 
diameter  by  length,  and  divide  by  four.  For  flue  boil- 
ers, multiply  the  diameter  by  the  length  and  divide  by 
four;  or,  multiply  area  of  grate  surface  in  square  feet 
by  iy2. 

Q.  What  do  you  understand  by  lead  on  an  engine's 
valve  ? 

A.  Lead  on  a  valve  is  the  admission  of  steam,  into 
the  cylinder  before  the  piston  completes  its  stroke. 

Q.  What  is  the  clearance  of  an  engine  as  the  term  is 
applied  at  the  present  time? 

A.  Clearance  is  the  space  between  the  cylinder  head 
and  the  piston  head  with  the  ports  included. 

Q.  What  are  considered  the  greatest  improvements 
on  the  stationary  engine   in  the  last  forty  years? 

A.  The  governor,  the  Corliss  valve  gear  and  the 
triple  compound  expansion. 

Q.     What  is  meant  by  triple  expansion  engine? 

A.  A  triple  expansion  engine  has  three  cylinders 
using  the  steam  expansively  in  each  one. 

Q.     What  is  a  condenser  as  applied  to  an  engine? 

A.  The  condenser  is  a  part  of  the  low  pressure  engine 
and  is  a  receptacle  into  which  the  exhaust  enters  and  is 
there  condensed. 

Q.  What  are  the  principles  which  distinguish  a  high 
pressure  from  a  low  pressure  engine? 

A.  Where  no  condenser  is  used  and  the  exhaust 
steam  is  open  to  the  atmosphere. 

Q.  About  how  much  gain  is  there  by  using  the  con- 
denser ? 


QUESTIONS  APPLYING  TO  LICENSE.  183 

A.  17  to  25  j>er  cent  where  cost  of  water  is  not  fig- 
ured. 

Q.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  use  of  steam  ex- 
pansively ? 

A.  Where  steam  admitted  at  a  certain  pressure  is 
cut  off  and  allowed  to  expand  to  a  lower  pressure. 

Q.  How  many  inches  of  vacuum  give  the  best  re- 
sults in  a  condensing  engine? 

A.     Usually  considered  25. 

Q.     What  is  meant  by  a  horizontal  tandem  engine? 

A.  One  cylinder  being  behind  the  other  with  two 
pistons  on  same  rod. 

Q.     What  is  a  Corliss  valve  gear? 

A,  {Describe  the  half  moon  or  crab  claw  gear,  or 
oval  arm  gear  zvith  dash  pots.) 

Q.  From,  what  cause  do  belts  have  the  power  to 
drive  shafting? 

A.     By  friction  or  cohesion. 

Q.     What  do  you  understand  by  lap? 

A.  Outside  lap  is  that  portion  of  valve  which  ex- 
tends beyond  the  ports  when  valve  is  placed  on  the 
center  of  travel,  and  inside  lap  is  that  portion  of  valve 
which  projects  over  the  ports  on  the  inside  or  towards 
the  middle  of  valve. 

Q.     What  is  the  use  of  lap? 

A.     To  give  the  engine  compression. 

Q.     Where  is  the  dead  center  of  an  engine? 

A.  The  point  where  the  crank  and  the  piston  rod 
are  in  the  same  right  line. 

Q.  What  is  the  tensile  strength  of  American  boiler 
iron  ? 

A.     40,000  to  60,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Q.  What  is  very  high  tensile  strength  in  boiler  iron 
apt  to  go  with? 

A.     Lack  of  homogeneousness  and  lack  of  toughness. 

Q.  What  is  the  advantage  of  toughness  in  boiler 
plate  ? 

A.  It  stands  irregular  strains  and  sudden  shocks  bet- 
ter. 

Q.  What  are  the  principal  defects  found  in  boiler 
iron? 


184  YOUNG  engineers'  GUIDE. 

A.     Imperfect  welding,  brittleness,  low  ductility. 

Q.  What  are  the  advantages  of  steel  as  a  material 
for  boiler  plates? 

A.  Homogeneity,  tensile  strength,  malleability,  duc- 
tility and  freedom  from  laminations  and  blisters. 

Q.  What  are  the  disadvantages  of  steel  as  a  material 
for  boiler  plates? 

A.  It  requires  greater  skill  in  working  than  iron, 
and  has,  as  bad  qualities,  brittleness,  low  ductility  and 
flaws  induced  by  the  pressure  of  gas  bubbles  in  the  ingot. 

Q.     When  would  you  oil  an  engine? 

A.  Before  starting  it  and  as  often  while  running  as 
necessary. 

Q.  How  do  you  find  proper  size  of  any  stay  bolts 
for  a  well  made  boiler? 

A.  First,  multiply  the  given  steam  pressure  per 
square  inch  by  the  square  of  the  distance  between  cen- 
ters of  stay  bolts,  and  divide  the  product  by  6,000,  and 
call  the  answer  ''the  quotient."  Second,  divide  "the  quo- 
tient" by  .7854,  and  extract  the  square  root  of  the  last 
quotient;  the  answer  will  give  the  required  diameter  of 
stay  boHs  at  the  bottom  of  thread. 

Q.  In  what  position  would  you  place  an  engine,  to 
take  up  any  slack  motion  of  the  reciprocating  parts? 

A.  Place  engine  in  the  position  where  the  least  wear 
takes  place  on  the  journals.  That  is,  in  taking  up  the 
wear  of  the  crank-pin  brasses,  place  the  engine  on  either 
dead  center,  as,  when  running,  there  is  but  little  wear 
upon  the  crank-pin  at  these  points.  If  taking  up  the 
cross-head  pin  brasses — without  disconnecting  and  swing- 
ing the  rod — place  the  engine  at  half  stroke,  which  is  the 
extreme  point  of  swing  of  the  rod,  there  being  the  least 
wear  on  the  brasses  and  cross-head  pin  in  this  position. 

Q.  What  benefits  are  derived  by  using  flywheels  on 
steam  engines? 

A.  The  energy  developed  in  the  cylinder  while  the 
steam  is  doing  its  work  is  stored  up  in  the  flywheel,  and 
given  out  by  it  while  there  is  no  work  being  done  in  the 
cylinder — that  is,  when  the  engine  is  passing  the  dead 


QUESTIONS  ArPLYING  TO  LICENSE.  185 

centers.  This  tends  to  keep  the  speed  of  the  engine  shaft 
steady. 

Q.  Name  several  kinds  of  reducing  motions,  as  used 
in  indicator  practice? 

A.  The  pantograph,  the  penduUim,  the  brumbo  pul- 
ley, the  reducing  wheel. 

Q.  How  can  an  engineer  tell  from  an  indicator  dia- 
gram whether  the  piston  or  valves  are  leaking? 

A.  Leaky  steam  valves  will  cause  the  expansion  curve 
to  become  convex;  that  is,  it  will  not  follow  hyperbolic 
expansion,  and  will  also  show  increased  back  pressure. 
But  if  the  exhaust  valves  leak  also,  one  may  offset  the 
other,  and  the  indicator  diagram  would  show  no  leak. 

A  leaky  piston  can  be  detected  by  a  rapid  falling  in 
the  pressure  on  the  expansion  curve  immediately  after 
the  point  of  cut-off.  It  will  also  show  increased  back 
pressure. 

A  falling  in  pressure  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  com- 
pression curve  shows  a  leak  in  the  exhaust  valve. 

Q.  What  would  be  the  best  method  of  treating  a 
badly  scaled  boiler,  that  was  to  be  cleaned  by  a  liberal 
use  of  compound? 

A.  First  open  the  boiler  up  and  note  where  the  loose 
scale,  if  any,  has  lodged.  Wash  out  thoroughly  and  put 
in  the  required  amount  of  compound.  While  the  boiler 
is  in  service,  open  the  blow-off  valve  for  a  few  seconds, 
two  or  three  times  a  day,  to  be  assured  that  it  does  not 
become  stopped  up  with  scale. 

After  running  the  boiler  for  a  week,  shut  it  down,  and, 
when  the  pressure  is  down  and  the  boiler  cooled  off, 
run  the  water  out  and  take  off  the  hand-hole  plates.  Note 
what  effect  the  compound  has  had  on  the  scale,  and  where 
the  disengaged  scale  has  lodged.  Wash  out  thoroughly 
and  use  judgment  as  to  whether  it  is  advisable  to  use  a 
less  or  greater  quantity  of  compound,  or  to  add  a  small 
quantity  daily. 

Continue  the  washing  out  at  short  intervals,  as  many 
boilers  have  been  burned  by  large  quantities  of  scale 
dropping  on  the  crown  sheets  and  not  being  removed. 

Q.     If  a  condenser  was  attached  to  a  side-valve  en- 


i86  YOUNG  engineers'  guide. 

gine,  that  had  been  set  to  run  non-condensing,  what 
changes,  if  any,  would  be  necessary? 

A.  More  lap  would  have  to  be  added  to  the  valve  to 
cut  off  the  steam  at  an  earlier  point  of  the  stroke ;  if  not, 
the  initial  pressure  into  the  cylinder  would  be  throttled 
down  and  the  economy,  to  be  gained  from  running  con- 
densing, lessened. 

Q.  If  you  are  carrying  a  vacuum  equal  to  27 J  inches 
of  mercury,  what  should  the  temperature  of  the  water 
in  the  hot  well  be? 

A.     108  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

Q.     Define  specific  gravity. 

A.  The  specific  gravity  of  a  substance  is  the  number 
which  expresses  the  relation  between  the  weights  of  equal 
volume  of  that  substance,  and  distilled  water  of  60  de- 
grees Fahrenheit. 

Q.  Find  the  specific  gravity  of  a  body  whose  volume 
is  12  cubic  inches,  and  which  floats  in  water  with  7  cubic 
inches  immersed. 

A.  When  a  body  floats  in  water,  it  displaces  a  quan- 
tity of  water  equal  to  the  weight  of  the  floating  body. 
Thus,  if  a  body  of  12  cubic  inches  in  volume  floats  with 
7  cubic  inches  immersed,  7  cubic  inches  of  water  must 
be  equal  in  weight  to  12  cubic  inches  of  the  substance 
and  one  cubic  inch  of  water  to  twelve-sevenths  cubic 
inches  of  the  substance. 

As  specific  gravity  equals  weight  of  one  volume  of 
substance  divided  by  weight  of  equal  volume  of  water, 
then  specific  gravity  of  the  substance  in  this  case  equals 
I  divided  by  twelve-sevenths. 

USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

To  find  circumference  of  a  circle^  multiply  diameter 
by  3.1416. 

To  find  diameter  of  a  circle,  multiply  circumference 
by  .31831. 

To  find  area  of  a  circle  multiply  square  of  diameter 
by  .7854. 

To  find  area  of  a  triangle,  multiply  base  by  one-half 
the  perpendicular  height. 


QUESTIONS  APPLYING  TO  LICENSE.  187 

To  find  surface  of  a  ball,  multiply  square  of  diameter 
by  3.1416. 

To  find  solidity  of  a  sphere,  multiply  cube  of  diameter 
by  .5236. 

To  find  side  of  an  equal  square,  multiply  diameter  by 
.8862. 

To  find  cubic  inches  in  a  ball  multiply  cube  of  diame- 
ter by  .5236. 

Doubling  the  diameter  of  a  pipe  increases  its  capacity 
four  times. 

A  gallon  of  water  (U.  S.  standard)  weighs  81-3 
pounds  and  contains  231  cubic  inches. 

A  cubic  foot  of  water  contains  7 J  gallons,  1728  cubic 
inches,  and  weighs  62J  pounds. 

To  find  the  pressure  in  pounds  per  square  inch  of  a 
column  of  water  multiply  the  height  of  the  column  in 
feet  by  .434. 

Steam  rising  from  water  at  its  boiling  point  (212  de- 
grees) has  a  pressure  equal  to  the  atmosphere  (14.7 
pounds  to  the  square  inch). 

A  standard  horse  power:  The  evaporation  of  30  lbs. 
of  water  per  hour  from  a  feed  water  temperature  of  100 
degrees   F.  into  steam  at  70  lbs.  gauge  pressure. 

To  find  capacity  of  tanks  any  size ;  given  dimensions 
of  a  cylinder  in  inches,  to  find  its  capacity  in  U.  S.  gal- 
lons :  Square  the  diameter,  multiply  by  the  length  and 
by  .0034. 

To  ascertain  heating  surface  in.  tubular  boilers,  mul- 
tiply two-thirds  of  the  circumference  of  boiler  by  length 
of  boiler  in  inches  and  add  to  it  the  area  of  all  the  tubes. 

One-sixth  of  tensile  strength  of  plate  multiplied  by 
thickness  of  plate  and  divided  by  one-half  the  diameter 
of  boiler  gives  safe  working  pressure  for  tubular  boilers. 
For  marine  boilers  add  20  per  cent  for  drilled  holes. 

To  find  the  horsepower  of  an  engine,  the  following 
four  factors  must  be  considered:  Mean  eflfective  or  av- 
erage pressure  on  the  cylinder,  length  of  stroke,  diame- 
ter of  cylinder,  and  number  of  revolutions  per  minute. 
Find  the  area  of  the  piston  in  square  inches  by  multi- 
plying the  diameter  by  3.1416  and  multiply  the  result 
by  the  steam  pressure  in  pounds  per  square  inch;  mul- 


i88  YOUNG  engineers'  guide. 

tiply  this  product  by  twice  the  product  of  the  length  of 
the  stroke  in  feet  and  the  number  of  revolutions  per 
minute;  divide  the  result  by  33,000,  and  the  result  will 
be  the  horseoower  of  the  engine. 

(Theoretically  a  horsepower  is  a  power  that  will  raise 
33,000  pounds  one  foot  in  one  minute.) 

The  power  of  fuel  is  measured  theoretically  from  the 
following  basis:  If  a  pound  weight  fall  780  feet  in  a 
vacuum.,  it  will  generate  heat  enough  to  raise  the  tem- 
perature of  one  pound  of  water  one  degree.  Conversely, 
power  that  will  raise  one  pound  of  water  one  degree  in 
temperature  will  raise  a  one  pound  weight  780  feet. 
The  heat  force  required  to  turn  a  pound  of  water  at  32 
degrees  into  steam  would  lift  a  ton  weight  400  feet  high, 
or  develop  two-fifths  of  one  horsepower  ifor  an  hour. 
The  best  farm  engine  practically  uses  35  pounds  of  water 
per  horsepower  per  hour,  showing  that  one  pound  of 
water  would  develop  only  one-thirty-fifth  of  a  horse- 
power in  an  hour,  or  71-7  per  cent  of  the  heat  force 
liberated.  The  rest  of  the  heat  force  is  lost  in  various 
ways,  as  explained  in  the  body  of  this  book. 

The  following"^  will  assist  in  determining  the  amount 
of  power  supplied  to  an  engine : 

'Tor  instance,  a  i  inch  belt  of  the  standard  grade  with 
the  proper  tension,  neither  too  tight  or  too  loose,  run- 
ning at  a  maximumi  speed  of  800  feet  a  minute  will 
transmit  one  horsepower,  running  1,600  feet  two  horse- 
power and  2,400  feet  three  horsepower.  A  2-inch  belt 
at  the  same  speed,  twice  the  power. 

''Now  if  you  know  the  circumference  of  your  flywheel, 
the  number  of  revolutions  your  engine  is  making  and 
the  width  of  belt,  you  can  figure  very  nearly  the  amount 
of  power  you  can  supply  without  slipping  your  belt.  For 
instance,  we  will  say  your  flywheel  is  40  inches  in  diam- 
eter or  10.5  feet  nearly  in  circumference  and  your  engine 
was  running  225  revolutions  a  minute,  your  belt  would 
be  traveling  225x10.5  feet  =  2362.5  feet,  or  very  nearly 
2,400  feet,  and  if  one  inch  of  belt  would  transmit  three 

*J.   H.  Maggard    in  "Rough  and  Tumble  Engineering." 


QUESTIONS  APPLYING  TO  LICENSE.  189 

horsepower  running  this  speed,  a  6-inch  belt  would 
transmit  eighteen  horsepower,  a  7-inch  belt  twenty-one 
horsepower,  an  8-inch  belt  twenty-four  horsepower, 
and  so  on.  With  the  above  as  a  basis  for  figuring  you 
can  satisfy  yourself  as  to  the  power  you  are  furnishing. 
To  get  the  best  results  a  belt  wants  to  sag  slightly,  as  it 
hugs  the  pulley  closer,  and  will  last  much  longer." 

KEYING   PULLEYS.* 

A  key  must  be  of  equal  width  its  whole  length  and 
accurately  fit  the  seats  on  shaft  and  in  pulley.  The  thick- 
ness should  vary  enough  to  make  the  taper  correspond 
with  that  of  the  seat  in  the  pulley.  The  keys  should  be 
driven  in  tight  enough  to  be  safe  against  working  loose. 
The  hubs  of  most  of  the  pulleys  on  the  machine  run 
against  the  boxes,  and  in  keying  these  on,  about  1-32 
of  an  inch  end  play  to  the  shaft  should  be  allowed,  be- 
cause there  is  danger  of  the  pulley  rubbing  so  hard 
against  the  end  of  the  box  as  to  cause  it  to  heat. 

A  key  that  is  too  thin  but  otherwise  fits  all  right  can 
be  made  tight  by  putting  a  strip  of  tin  between  the  key 
and  the  bottom  of  the  seat  in  the  pulley. 

Drazmng  Keys.  If  a  part  of  the  key  stands  outside  of 
the  hub,  catch  it  with  a  pair  of  horseshoe  pinchers  and 
pry  with  them  against  the  hub,  at  the  same  time  hitting 
the  hub  with  a  hammer  so  as  to  drive  pulley  on.  A  key 
can  sometimes  be  drawn  by  catching  the  end  of  it  with 
a  claw  hammer  and  driving  on  the  hub  of  pulley.  If 
pulley  is  against  box  and  key  cut  off  flush  with  hub,  take 
the  shaft  out  and  use  a  drift  from  the  inside,  or  if  seat 
is  not  long  enough  to  make  this  possible,  drive  the  pulley 
on  until  the  key  loosens. 

BABBITTING  BOXES.* 

To  babbitt  any  kind  of  a  box,  first  chip  out  all  of  the 
old  babbitt  and  clean  the  shaft  and  box  thoroughly  with 
benzine.  This  is  necessary  or  gas  will  be  formed  from 
the  grease  when  the  hot  metal  is  poured  in  and  leave 
"blow  holes."     In  babbitting  a  solid  box  cover  the  shaft 

*Courtesy    J.    I.    Case   Threshing    Machine    Co.,    from    "Science 
of  Successful  Threshing." 


100  YOUNG  engineers'  GUIDE. 

with  paper,  draw  it  smooth  and  tight,  and  fasten  the 
lapped  ends  with  miucilage.  If  this  is  not  dene  the  shrink- 
age of  the  metal  in  cooling  will  make  it  fast  on  the  shaft, 
so  that  it  can't  be  moved.  If  this  happened  it  would  be 
necessary  to  put  the  shaft  and  box  together  in  the  fire 
and  melt  the  babbitt  out  or  else  break  the  box  to  get  it 
off.  Paper  around  the  shaft  will  prevent  this  and  if 
taken  out  when  the  babbitt  has  cooled  the  shaft  will  be 
found  to  be  just  tight  enough  to  run  well. 

Before  pouring  the  box,  block  up  the  shaft  until  it  is 
in  line  and  in  center  of  the  box  and  put  stiff  putty  around 
the  shaft  and  against  the  ends  of  the  box  to  keep  the 
babbitt  from  running  out.  Be  sure  to  leave  air-holes  at 
each  end  at  the  top,  making  a  little  funnel  of  putty 
around  each.  Also  make  a  larger  funnel  around  the 
pouring  hole,  or,  if  there  is  none,  enlarge  one  of  the  air- 
holes at  the  end  and  pour  in  that.  The  metal  should  be 
heated  until  it  is  just  hot  enough  to  run  freely  and  the 
fire  should  not  be  too  far  away.  When  ready  to  pour 
the  box,  don't  hesitate  or  stop,  but  pour  continuously 
and  rapidly  until  the  metal  appears  at  the  air  holes.  The 
oil  hole  may  be  stopped  with  a  wooden  plug  and  if  this 
plug  extends  through  far  enough  to  touch  the  shaft,  it 
will  leave  a  hole  through  the  babbitt  so  that  it  will  not 
be  necessary  to  drill  one. 

A  split  box  is  babbitted  in  the  same  manner  except 
that  strips  of  cardboard  or  sheet-iron  are  placed  between 
the  two  halves  of  the  box  and  against  the  shaft  to  divide 
the  babbitt.  To  let  the  babbitt  run  from  the  upper  half 
to  the  lower,  cut  four  or  six  V-shaped  notches,  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  deep,  in  the  edges  of  the  sheet-iron  or  card- 
board that  come  against  the  shaft.  Cover  the  shaft  with 
paper  and  put  cardboard  liners  between  the  box  to  allow 
for  adjustment  as  it  wears.  Bolt  the  cap  on  securely 
before  pouring.  When  the  babbitt  has  cooled,  break  the 
box  apart  by  driving  a  cold  chisel  between  the  two  halves. 
Trim  off  the  sharp  edges  of  the  babbitt  and  with  a  round- 
nose  chisel  cut  oil  grooves  from  the  oil  hole  towards  the 
ends  of  the  box  and  on  the  slack  side  of  the  box  or  the 
one  opposite  to  the  direction  in  which  the  belt  pulls. 


QUESTIONS  APPLYING  TO  LICENSE.  I9I 

The  ladle  should  hold  six  or  eight  pounds  of  metal. 
If  much  larger  it  is  awkward  to  handle  and  if  too  small 
it  will  not  keep  the  metal  hot  long  enough  to  pour  a  good 
box.  The  cylinder  boxes  on  the  separator  take  from 
two  to  three  pounds  of  metal  each.  If  no  putty  is  at 
hand,  clay  mixed  to  the  proper  consistency  may  be  used. 
Use  the  best  babbitt  you  can  get  for  the  cylinder  boxes. 
If  not  sure  of  the  quality,  use  ordinary  zinc.  It  is  not 
expensive  and  is  generally  satisfactory. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Lime  may  be  taken  out  of  an  injector  by  soaking  it 
over  night  in  a  mixture  of  one  part  of  muriatic  acid 
and  ten  parts  soft  water.  If  a  larger  proportion  of  acid 
is  used  it  is  likely  to  spoil  the  injector. 

A  good  blacking  for  boilers  and  smokestacks  is  as- 
phaltum  dissolved  in  turpentine. 

To  polish  brass,  dissolve  5  cents'  worth  of  oxalic  acid 
in  a  pint  of  water  and  use  to  clean  the  brass.  When 
tarnish  has  been  removed,  dry  and  polish  with  chalk 
or  whiting. 

It  is  said  that  iron  or  steel  will  not  rust  if  it  is  placed 
for  a  few  minutes  in  a  warm  solution  of  washing  soda. 

Grease  on  the  bottom  of  a  boiler  will  stick  there  and 
prevent  the  water  from  conducting  away  the  heat.  When 
steel  is  thus  covered  with  grease  it  will  soon  melt  in  a 
hot  fire,  causing  a  boiler  to  burst  if  the  steel  is  pKX>r,  or 
warping  it  out  of  shape  if  the  steel  is  good. 

Sulphate  of  lime  in  water,  causing  scale,  may  be  coun- 
teracted and  scale  removed  by  using  coal  oil  and  sal 
soda.  When  water  contains  carbonate  of  lime,  molasses 
will  remove  the  scale. 

CODE  OF  WHISTLE  SIGNALS. 

One  short  sound  means  to  stop. 

Two  short  sounds  means  the  engine  is  about  to  begin 
work. 

Three  medium  short  sounds  mean  that  the  machine 
will  soon  need  grain  and  grain  haulers  should  hurry. 

One  rather  long  sound  followed  by  three  short  ones 
means  the  water  is  low  and  water  hauler  should  hurry. 


jg2 


YOUNG  ENGINEERS*  GUIDE. 


A  succession  of  short,  quick  whistles  means  distress 
or  fire. 

WEIGHT    PER   BUSHEL   OF   GRAIN. 

The  following  table  gives  the  number  of  pounds  per 
bushel  required  by  law  or  custom  in  the  sale  of  grain 
in  the  several  states : 


Arkansas     

California     

Connecticut     

District  of  Columbia 

Georgia    

Illinois    

Indiana    

Iowa     

Kansas    

Kentucky     

Louisiana    

Maine     

Manitoba     

Maryland     

Massachusetts     

Michigan     

Minnesota   

Missouri    

Nebraska     

New   York    

New   Jersey    

New   Hampshire    .  . . , 

North   Carolina    

North   Dakota    

Ohio    

Oklahoma    

Oregon     

Pennsylvania    

South    Dakota    

South   Carolina    .  . .  . . 

Vermont    

Virginia     

West  Virginia    

Wisconsin    


6ols2 
.  .|40 
..|45 
62 1 48 
..|.. 
60I52 
60I50 
60I52 
6o|so 
60 1 52 


64 1 48 
..I48 
64 1 48 
48|.. 
..I48 
60I42 
60152 
60I52 
62 1 48 
••Iso 
6o|.. 
..I50 
..\42 
6o|so 
..|42 

..I42 

..I48 

..\52 

60I56 
64 1 48 
60148 
60I52 

..I48 


60 


60 


56 


56 


45 


48 


CO 


56 

32154 

32156 

32I56 

3Sl56 
32I56 
32I56 
32I56 

I32I56 
!32|S6 

l32|.. 

I30I.. 

341- -156 

\32\56 

I32I56 

I32I56 

48!32|56 

50I32I56 

.|34ls6 

.I32I56 

.\30\56 

.\30\56 

.I30I56 

•132156 

•I32I50 

•132156 

•I36J56 

•I30I56 

50I32I56 

33ls6 

32I56 

32I56 

32I56 

32|s6 


45 


56 

52 

56 

56 

56 

56I.. 

56I45 

56145 

56I45 

56I45 

56|.. 

56I.. 

56I.. 

56I45 

56|.. 

56I45 

56!.. 

56I45 

56I45 

58I44 

S6|.. 

56|.. 

54|.. 

56i.. 

56I45 

56I.. 

56I.. 

56I.. 

56I.. 

56I.. 

56I42 

56I4S 

56I45 

S6I.. 


60 
60 
56 
1 60 
1 60 
1 60 
1 60 
1 60 
I60 
I60 
1 60 
1 60 
1 60 
1 60 
1 60 
1 60 
1 60 
1 60 
1 60 
I60 
1 60 
1 60 
1 60 
|6o 
1 60 
1 60 
I60 
I60 
1 60 
I60 
1 60 
1 60 
I60 
1 60 


CHAPTER  XVt. 

DIFFERENT    MAKES    OF    TRACTION    ENGINE^. 
J.    I.    CASE   TRACTION    ENGINES. 

These  engines  are  among  the  simplest  and  at  the  same 
time  most  substantial  and  durable  traction  engines  on  the 
market.  They  are  built  of  the  best  materials  throughout, 
and  are  one  of  the  easiest  engines  for  a  novice  to  run. 

They  are  of  the  side  crank  type,  with  spring  mounting. 
The  engine  is  supported  by  a  bracket  bolted  to  the  side 
of  the  boiler^  and  a  pillow  block  bearing  at  the  firebox  end 
bolted  to  the  side  plate  of  the  boiler. 

The  valve  is  the  improved  Woolf,  a  single  simple 
valve  being  used,  worked  by  a  single  eccentric.  The 
eccentric  strap  has  an  extended  arm  pivoted  in  a  wooden 
block  sliding  in  a  guide.  The  direction  of  this  guide  can 
be  so  changed  by  the  reverse  lever  as  to  vary  the  cut-off 
and  easily  reverse  the  engine  when  desired. 

The  engine  is  built  either  with  a  simple  cylinder  or 
with  a  tandem,  compound  cylinder. 

In  the  operation  of  the  dififerential  gear,  the  power  is 
first  transmitted  to  spur  gear,  containing  cushion  springs, 
from  thence  by  the  springs  to  a  center  ring  and  four  bevel 
pinions  which  bear  equally  upon  both  bevel  gears.  The 
whole  dififerential  consequently  will  move  together  as  but 
one  wheel  when  engine  is  moving  straight  forward  or 
backward ;  but  when  turning  a  corner  the  four  pinions 
revolve  in  the  bevel  gears  just  in  proportion  to  the  sharp- 
ness of  the  curve. 

There  is  a  friction  clutch  working  on  the  inside  of  the 
flywheel  by  means  of  two  friction  shoes  that  can  be  ad- 
justed as  they  wear. 

There  is  a  feed  water  heater  with  three  tubes  in  a 
watertight  cylinder  into  which  the  exhaust  steam  is  ad- 
mitted. The  three  tubes  have  smaller  pipes  inside  so  that 

193 


194 


YOUNG  ENGINEERS    GUIDfi. 


the  feed  water  in  passing  through  forms  a  thin  cyHn- 
drical  ring. 

The  traction  wheels  are  driven   from  the  rims.     The 
front  wheels  have  a  square  band  on  the  center  of  the 


rim,  to  prevent  slipping  sidewise.     The  smokestack  is 
cast  iron  in  one  piece. 

The  firebox  will  burn  wood,  coal  or  straw,  a  fire  brick 
arch  being  used  for  straw,  making  this  fuel  give  a  uni- 
form heat. 


DIFFERENT  TYPES  OF   ENGINES. 


195 


The  boiler  is  of  the  simple  locomotive  type,  with  water 
leg  around  the  firebox  and  numerous  fire  flues  connect- 
ing the  firebox  with  the  smokestack  in  front.  There 
is  safety  plug  in  crown  sheet  and  the  usual  fittings.  The 
water  tank  is  under  the  platform.  The  steering  wheel 
and  band  wheel  are  on  right  side  of  engine.  An  inde- 
pendent Marsh  pump  and  injector  are  used.  The  Marsh 
pump  is  arranged  to  heat  the  feed  water  when  exhaust 
heater  cannot  be  used.  The  governor  is  the  Waters, 
the  safety  valve  the  Kunkle. 


THE    FRICK    CO.  S    TRACTION    ENGINE. 

The  most  noticeable  feature  of  this  engme  is  that  it 
has  a  frame  mounted  on  the  traction  wheels  entirely 
independent  of  the  boiler,  thus  relieving  the  boiler  of 
all  strain.  This  is 
an  undeniable  ad- 
vantage, since  usu- 
ally the  strain  on 
the  boiler  is  great 
enough  w  i  t  h  o  u  t 
forcing  the  boiler  to 
carry  the  engine 
and  gears. 

The  gearing  to 
the  traction  wheels 
is  simple  and  direct, 
and  a  patent  elastic 
spring  or  cushion  connection  is  used  which  avoids  sud- 
den strain  and  possible  breakage  of  gears.  Steel  trac- 
tion wheels  and  riveted  spokes.  Diflferential  gear  in 
main  axle,  with  locking  device  when  both  traction 
wheels  are  required  to  pull  out  of  a  hole.  The  reverse 
gear  is  single  eccentric,  the  eccentric  turning  on 
the  shaft.  It  is  well  adapted  to  using  steam  ex- 
pansively. The  crown  sheet  is  so  arranged  as  not  to  be 
left  bare  of  water  in  going  up  or  down  hills.  Working 
parts  are  covered  dust  proof.  Engine  has  self-oiling 
features  and  sight  feed  lubricator..  Friction  clutch  in 
flywheel.     Safety  brake  on  rtiain  axle.    Engineer's  plat- 


THE  FRICK  CO.'S  TRACTION  ENGINE. 


19^ 


YOUNG  engineers'   GUIDE. 


form  mounted  on  springs  and  every  part  of  engine  re- 
quiring attention  can  be  reached  conveniently  from  plat- 
form. 

Crank  is  center  type.    Cross-head  pump  is  used.    Usual 
fittings. 


These  engines  are  built  with  boiler  of  locomotive  type 
for  burning  wood  and  coal,  and  of  return  flue  type  for 
burning   straw.      They   are   also   built   of  three   general 


DIFFERENT   TYPES  OF   ENGINES.  T97 

types,  "Corliss-pattern"  frame,  ''Standard"  and  "Com- 
pound." 

The  engine  is  side  crank,  mounted  on  brackets  at- 
tached to  the  sides  of  the  boiler.  The  bedplate,  cylinder 
and  guides  are  bored  at  one  operation  and  cannot  get 
out  of  alignment.  Cylinder  has  wide  ports  and  free 
exhaust,  and  piston  has  self-setting  rings.  The  genuine 
link  reverse  gear  is  used,  as  on  locomotives,  and  it  un- 
doubtedly has  many  advantages  over  any  other,  includ- 
ing an  easily  adjustable  variable  cut-off  by  correct  setting 
of  reverse  lever. 

The  differential  gear  is  heavy  and  effective.  A  patent 
steering  attachment,  with  spiral  roll,  holds  chains  taut 
and  gives  positive  motion.  Friction  clutch  is  mounted 
on  engine  shaft  and  connects  with  the  hub  of  the  pinion 
on  this  shaft.  Rigid  pinion  is  also  provided.  Cross-head 
pump  and  injector  are  used,  and  Pickering  governor 
with  improved  spring  speeder,  permitting  qudck  and 
easy  change  of  speed ;  also  Sawyer's  lever  for  testing 
safety.  Steam  passes  direct  from  dome  to  cylinder,  with- 
out loss  from  cooling  or  condensing.  The  steel  water 
tank  can  be  filled  by  a  jet  pump  operated  by  steam. 

D.  JUNE  &  CO.'S  TRACTION   ENGINE. 

This  is  one  of  the  very  few  traction  engines  built  with 
upright  boiler,  but  it  has  been  on  the  market  many  years 
and  has  been  widely  used  with  great  success  as  a  general 
road  locomotive. 

Tlie  engine  is  mounted  on  the  water  tank.  The  weight 
of  the  boiler  comes  on  the  hind  wheels,  and  makes  this 
type  of  engine  superior  for  pulling.  It  is  claimed  that 
it  has  no  equal  on  the  market  as  a  puller.  The  upright 
type  of  boiler  has  the  advantage  that  the  crown  sheet 
is  never  exposed  and  it  is  claimed  flues  will  last  longer 
than  in  horizontal  type.  It  works  equally  well  whether 
it  stands  level  or  not,  an  advantage  that  no  other  type 
has. 

This  type  gets  up  steam  more  quickly  than  any  other — 
it  is  said,  from  cold  water,  in  twenty  minutes.  The  steam 
is  superheated  in  a  way  to  economize  fuel  and  water. 


198 


YOUNG   ENGINEERS     GUIDE. 


By  being  mounted  on  the  tank,  the  engine  does  not  get 
hot  as  it  would  if  mounted  on  the  boiler,  and  the  cor- 
responding straining  of  parts  is  avoided.  A  patent  water 
spark  arrester  is  used  which  is  an  absolute  protection. 


The  engine  is  geared  to  the  traction  by  a  chain,  which 
can  easily  be  repaired  as  the  links  wear.  The  friction 
clutch  works  inside  flywheel.  Engine  has  a  new  re- 
versible eccentric^  and  differential  gear,  with  usual  fit- 
tings. 


DIFFERENT   TYPES  OF   ENGINES. 


199 


NICHOLS  &  SHEPARD  TRACTION   ENGINE. 

The  builders  of  this  engine  lay  special  stress  upon  the 
care  with  which  the  boiler  and  similar  parts  are  con- 
structed.    The  important  seams  are  double  riveted,  and 


the  flue  sheet  is  half  inch  steel,  drilled  instead  of  punched 
for  the  flues,  and  fitted  with  seamless  steel  flues,  all  of  the 
best  steel. 

The  boiler  is  the  direct  flue  locomotive  type.  The  crown 


200 


YOUNG  ENGINEERS     GUIDE. 


sheet  slopes  backward  to  allow  it  to  be  covered  with  wa- 
ter in  descending  hills.  Boiler  has  round-bottom  firebox. 
Axle  passes  around  below  the  boiler,  and  springs  are  pro- 
vided. 

The  engine  is  mounted  on  a  long  heater,  which  is  at- 
tached to  the  side  of  the  boiler.  The  locomotive  link  re- 
verse is  used,  with  a  plain  slide  valve. 

Cross-head  pump  and  injector  are  used,  and  improved 
pop  safety  valve.  Cylinder  is  jacketed,  and  cross-head 
guides  are  rigid  with  cylinder,  so  that  perfect  alignment 
is  always  secured.  . 

Engines  are  built  to  burn  coal  or  wood.  A  straw  bur- 
ner is  provided  with  firebrick  arch.  Compound  engines 
are  also  built. 


THE   HUBER   TRACTION   ENGINE. 

The  Huber  boiler  is  of  the  return  flue  type,  and  the 
gates  are  in  the  large  central  tube.  This  does  away  with 
the  low-hanging  firebox,  and  enables  the  engine  to  cross 
streams  and  straddle  stumps  as  the  low  firebox  type  can- 
not do.  The  cylindrical  shape  of  the  boiler  also  adds 
considerably  to  its  strength.    The  water  tank  is  carried  in 

front,  and  swings 
around  so  as  to 
open  the  smoke  box, 
so  that  repairs  may 
be  made  on  the  fire 
tubes  at  this  end 
easily  in  the  open 
air.  With  water 
front  return  flue 
boilers  the  workman 
has  to  crawl  through 
entire  length  of  cen- 
tral flue.  As  there 
mounted  above  the  axle, 
the  side  of  the  firebox, 
to     the     axle,     which     is 


THE  HUBER  TRACTION  ENGINE. 


is   no   firebox,    the   boiler    is 

not    by    bolting    a    plate    to 

The     boiler     is     made     fast 

mounted  on  wheels  with  spring  cushion  gear,  the  springs 

being  placed  in  the  wheel  itself ^  between  the  two  bearings 


DIFFERENT  TYPES  OF   ENGINES.  201 

of  the  wheel  or  the  hub  on  trunnions,  which  form  the 
spindle  for  the  hub.  The  wheel  revolves  on  the  trunnion 
instead  of  on  the  axle,  and  there  is  no  wear  on  the  axle. 
The  traction  gear  has  a  spring  connection  so  that  in  start- 
ing a  load  there  is  little  danger  of  breakage.  The  com- 
pensating gear  is  all  spur.  The  intermediate  gear  has  a 
ten-inch  bearing,  with  an  eccentric  in  the  center  for  ad- 
justing the  gear  above  and  below.  There  is  a  spring 
draw  bar  and  elastic  steering  device.  An  improved  fric- 
tion clutch  works  on  inside  of  flywheel.  Engine  has  a 
speci:.l  governor  adapted  to  varying  work  over  rough 
roads,  etc. 

A  single  eccentric  reverse  gear  is  used,  with,  arm  and 
wood  slide  block  (Woolf)  ;  and  there  is  a  variable  ex- 
haust, by  which  a  strong  draft  may  be  quickly  created  by 
shutting  off  one  of  two  exhaust  nozzles.  When  both 
exhausts  are  open,  back  pressure  is  almost  entirely  re- 
lieved. 

The  steam  is  carried  in  a  pip€  down  through  the  mid- 
dle of  the  central  flue,  so  that  superheating  is  secured, 
which  it  is  claimed  makes  a  saving  of  over  8  per  cent  in 
fuel  and  water.  The  stack  is  double  walled  with  air  space 
between  the  walls. 

A  special  straw-burning  engine  is  constructed  with  a 
firebox  extension  in  front,  and  straw  passes  over  the 
end  of  a  grate  in  such  a  way  as  to  get  perfect  combustion. 
This  make  of  engine  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  burning 
straw  successfully. 

A.  W.  STEVENS'  TRACTION  ENGINE. 

This  engine  has  locomotive  pattern  boiler,  with  sloping 
crown  sheet,  and  especially  high  offset  over  firebox,  dou- 
bling steam  space  that  will  give  dry  steam  at  all  times.  A 
large  size  steam  pipe  passes  from  dome  in  rear  through 
boiler  to  engine  in  front,  superheating  steam  and  avoiding 
condensation  from  exposure.  Grate  is  a  rocking  one, 
easily  cleaned  and  requiring  little  attention,  and  firedoor 
is  of  a  pattern  that  remains  air-tight  and  need  seldom  be 
opened. 


202 


YOUNG  ENGINEERS    GUIDE. 


The  engine  is  mounted  upon  the  boiler,  arranged  for 
rear  gear  traction  attachment.  Engine  frame,  cyh'nder, 
guides,  etc.,  are  cast  in  one  soHd  piece. 

It  has  a  special  patented  single  eccentric  reverse,  and 


Pickering  horizontal  governor.  There  is  a  friction  clutch, 
Marsh  steam  pump,  and  injector.  Other  r7ttings  are  com- 
plete, and  engine  is  well  made  throughout. 


DIFFERENT   TYPES  OF   ENGINES. 


203 


AULTMAN-TAYLOR  TRACTION   ENGINE, 

The  Aultman-Taylor  Traction  Engine  is  an  exception- 
ally well  made  engine  of  the  simplest  type,  and  has  been 
on  the  market  over  25  years.  There  are  two  general 
types,  the  wood  and  coal  burners  with  locomotive  boilers, 
and  return  flue  boiler  style  for  burning  straw.  A  com- 
pound engine  is  also  made  with  the  Woolf  single  valve 
gear. 

A  special  feature  of  this  engine  is  that  the  rear  axle 
comes  behind  the  firebox  instead  of  between  the  firebox 
and  the  front  wheels.  This  distributes  the  weight  of  the 
engine  more  evenly.  The  makers  do  not  believe  in  springs 
for  the  rear  axle, 
since  they  have  a 
tendency  to  wear 
the  gear  convex  or 
round,  and  really 
accomplish  much 
less  than  they  are 
supposed  to. 

Another  special 
point  is  the  bevel 
traction  gear.  The 
engine  is  mounted 
on  the  boiler  well 
toward      the     front, 

and  the  flywheel  is  near  the  stack  (in  the  locomotive 
type).  By  bevel  gears  and  a  long  shaft  the  power  is  con- 
ducted to  the  differential  gear  in  connection  with  the  rear 
wheels.  The  makers  claim  that  lost  motion  can  be  taken 
up  in  a  bevel  gear  much  better  than  in  a  spur  gear.  Be- 
sides, the  spur  gear  is  noisy  and  not  nearly  so  durable. 
Much  less  friction  is  claimed  for  this  type  of  gear. 

The  governor  is  the  Pickering;  cross-head  pump  is 
used,  with  U.  S.  injector;  heater,  and  other  fittings  com- 
plete. A  band  friction  clutch  is  used,  said  to  be  very  dur- 
able. Diamond  special  spark  arrester  is  used  except  in 
straw  burners.  The  platform  and  front  bolster  are  pro- 
vided with  springs.       The  makers  especially  recommend 


AULT MAX-TAYLOR    TRACTION    ENGINE. 


204  YOUNG  engineers'   GUIDE. 

their  compound  engine,  claiming  a  gain  of  about  25  per 
cent.  The  use  of  automatic  band  cutters  and  feeders,  auto- 
matic weighers  and  baggers,  and  pneumatic  stackers  with 
threshing  machine  outfits  make  additional  demands  on  an 
engine  that  is  best  met  by  the  compound  type.  With  large 
outfits,  making  large  demands,  the  compound  engine  gives 
the  required  power  without  undue  weight. 

AVERY  TRACTION   ENGINE. 

The  Avery  is  an  engine  with  a  return  flue  boiler  and 
full  water  front,  and  also  is  arranged  with  a  firebox  be- 
sides. There  is  no  doubt  that  it  effects  the  greatest  econ- 
omy of  fuel  possible,  and  is  adaptable  equally  for  wood, 
coal,  or  straw.  T\mt  boiler  is  so  built  that  a  man  may 
,B, readily     crawl 

Grime,  a  single  ec- 
centric with  device 
for  shifting  for  reverse.  The  friction  clutch  has  unusu- 
ally long  shoes,  working  inside  the  flywheel,  with  ample 
clearance  when  lever  is  ofif.  A  specialty  is  made  of  extra 
wide  traction  wheels  for  soft  country.  The  traction  gear 
is  of  the  spur  variety.  There  is  also  a  double  speed  device 
ofifered  as  an  extra. 

The  water  tank  is  carried  in  front,  and  lubricator,  steer- 
ing wheel  (on  same  side  as  band  wheel  for  convenience 
in  lining  up  with  separator),  reverse  lever,  friction 
clutch,  etc.,  are  all  right  at  the  hand  of  the  engineer. 

The  traction  gear  is  of  the  spur  variety,  adjusted  to  be 
evenly  distributed  to  both  traction  wheels  through  the 
compensating  gear,  and  to  get  the  best  possible  pull  in 
case  of  need, 


AVERY   TRACTION   ENGINE. 


DIFFERENT    TYPES    OF    ENGINES. 


205 


For  pulling  qualities  and  economy  of  fuel,  this  engine  is 
especially  recommended. 

BUFFALO  PITTS  TRACTION  ENGINE. 

The  Buffalo  Pitts  Engine  is  built  either  single  cylinder 
or  double  cylinder.  The  boiler  is  of  the  direct  flue  loco- 
motive type,  with  full  water  bottom  firebox.  The  straw 
burners  are  provided  with  a  firebrick  arch  in  the  firebox. 
Boilers  are  fully  jacketed. 


206  YOUNG  engineers'  GUIDE. 

The  single  and  double  cylinder  engines  differ  only  in 
this  one  particular,  the  double  cylinder  having  the  advan- 
tage of  never  being  on  a  dead  center  and  starting  with 
perfect  smoothness  and  gently,  seldom  throwing  off  belt. 
The  frame  has  bored  guides,  in  same  piece  with  cylinder, 
effecting  perfect  alignment. 

The  compensating  gear  is  of  the  bevel  type,  half 
shrouded  and  so  close  together  that  sand  and  grit  are  kept 
out.  Three  pinions  are  used,  which  it  is  claimed  prevent 
rocking  caused  by  two  or  four  pinions. 

Cross-head  has  shoes  unusually  long  and  wide.  The 
engine  frame  is  of  the  box  pattern,  and  is  also  used  as  a 
heater,  feed  water  for  either  injector  or  steam  pump  pass- 
ing through  it.  Valve  is  of  the  plain  locomotive  slide 
type. 

The  friction  clutch  has  hinged  arms  working  into  fly- 
wheel with  but  slight  beveling  on  flywheel  inner  surface, 
and  being  susceptible  of  easy  release.  It  is  a  specially 
patented  device.  The  Woolf  single  eccentric  reverse  gear 
is  used.  Engine  is  fully  provided  with  all  modern  fittings 
and  appliances  in  addition  to  those  mentioned.  It  was 
the  only  traction  engine  exhibited  at  Pan-American  Ex- 
position which  won  gold  medal  or  highest  award.  It 
claims  extra  high  grade  of  workmanship  and  durability. 

THE  REEVES  TRACTION   ENGINES. 

These  engines  are  made  in  two  styles,  simple  double 
cylinder  and  cross  compound.  The  double  cylinder  and 
cross  compound  style  have  been  very  successfully  adapted 
to  traction  engine  purposes  with  certain  advantages  that 
no  other  style  of  traction  engine  has.  With  two  cylinders 
and  two  pistons  placed  side  by  side,  with  crank  pins  at 
right  angles  on  the  shaft,  there  can  be  no  dead  centers,  at 
which  an  engine  will  be  completely  stuck.  Then  sudden 
starting  is  liable  to  throw  off  the  main  belt.  With  a  dou- 
ble cylinder  engine  the  starting  is  always  gradual  and 
easy,  and  never  fails. 

The  same  is  equally  true  of  the  cross  compound,  which 
has  the  advantage  of  using  the  steam  expansively  in  the 
low  pressure  cylinder.    In  case  of  need  the  live  steam  may 


t)I"FFER£NT    tYPES    OF    ENGINES. 


207 


be  introduced  into  the  low  pressure  cylinder,  enormously 
increasing  the  pulling  power  of  the  engine  for  an  emer- 
gency, though  the  capacity  of  the  boiler  does  not  permit 
long  use  of  both  cylinders  in  this  way. 


The  engine  is  placed  on  top  of  the  firebox  portion  of 
the  boiler,  and  the  weight  is  nicely  balanced  so  that  it 
comes  on  both  sides  alike. 


20B  YOUNG  ENGINEERS*  GUIDE. 

The  gearing  is  attached  to  the  axle  and  countershaft 
which  extend  across  the  engine.  The  compensating  gear 
is  strong  and  well  covered  from  dirt.  The  gearing  is  the 
gear  type,  axle  turning  with  the  drivers.  There  is  an 
independent  pump  ;  also  injector,  and  all  attachments.  The 
band  wheel  being  on  the  steering  wheel  or  right  side  of 
the  engine,  makes  it  easy  to  line  up  to  a  threshing  ma- 
chine. Engine  frame  is  of  the  Corliss  pattern;  boiler  of 
locomotive*  type,  and  extra  strongly  built. 

.  THE  RUMELY  TRACTION  ENGINE. 

The  most  striking  peculiarity  is  that  the  engine  is 
mounted  on  the  boiler  differently  from  most  side  crank 
traction  engines,  the  cylinder  being  forward  and  the 
shaft  at  the  rear.  This  brings  the  gearing  nearer  the 
traction  wheels  and  reduces  its  weight  and  complication. 


THE  RUMELY  TRACTION  ENGINE. 

The  boiler  is  of  the  round  bottom  firebox  type,  with 
dome  in  front  and  an  ash  pan  in  lower  part  of  firebox, 
and  is  unusually  well  built  and  firmly  riveted. 

The  traction  wheels  are  usually  high,  ^nd  the  flywheel 
is  between  one  wheel  and  the  boiler. 

The  engine  frame  is  of  the  girder  pattern,  with  over- 
hanging cylinder  attached  to  one  end. 

The  boiler  is  of  the  direct  flue  locomotive  type,  fitted 
for  straw,  wood,  or  coal.    Beam  axle  of  the  engine  is  be- 


DIFFERENT    TYPES    OF    ENGINES.  209 

hind  the  firebox,  and  is  a  single  soUd  steel  shaft.  Front 
axle  is  elliptical,  and  so  stronger  than  any  other  type. 

A  double  cylinder  engine  is  now  being  built  as  well  as 
the  single  cylinder.  The  governor  regulates  the  double 
cylinder  engine  more  closely  than  single  cylinder  types, 
and  in  the  Rumely  is  very  close  to  the  cut-off  where  a 
special  simple  reverse  is  used  with  the  double  cylinder 
engine. 

Engine  is  supplied  with  cross-head  pump  and  injector, 
Arnold  shifting  eccentric  reverse  gear,  friction  clutch,  and 
large  cylindrical  water  tank  on  the  side.  It  also  has  the 
usual  engine  and  boiler  fittings. 

PORT  HURON   TRACTION   ENGINE. 

The  I^ort  Huron  traction  engine  is  of  the  direct  flue 
locomotive  type,  built  either  simple  or  compound,  and  of 
medium  weight  and  excellent  proportions  for  general 
purpose  use.  The  compound  engine  (tandem  Woolf 
cylinders)  is  especially  recommended  and  pushed  as 
more  economical  than  the  simple  cylinder  engine.  As 
live  steam  can  be  admitted  to  the  low  pressure  cylinder, 
so  turning  the  compound  into  a  simple  cylinder  engine 
with  two  cylinders,  enormous  power  can  be  obtained  at 
a  moment's  notice  to  help  out  at  a  difficult  point. 

Two  injectors  are  furnished  with  this  engine,  and  the 
use  of  the  injector  is  recommended,  contrary  to  the  gen- 
eral belief  that  a  pump  is  more  economical.  The  com- 
pany contends  that  the  long  exhaust  pipe  causes  more 
back  pressure  on  the  cylinder  than  would  be  represented 
by  the  saving  of  heat  in  the  heater.  However,  a  cross- 
head  pump  and  special  condensing  heater  will  be  fur- 
nished if  desired. 

On  the  simple  engine  a  piston  valve  is  used,  the  seat 
of  the  valve  completely  surrounding  it  and  the  ports 
bein^  circular  openings,  the  result,  it  is  claimed,  being 
a  balanced  valve. 

The  valve  reverse  gear  is  of  the  Woolf  pattern,  the 
engine  frame  of  the  girder  type.  Waters  governor,  with 
special  patent  speed  changer,  specially  balanced  crank 
disc,  patent  straw  burner  arrangement  for  straw  burn- 


210 


YOUNG  ENGINEERS*  GUIDE. 


ihg  engines,  special  patent  spark  extinguisher,  special 
patent  gear  lock,  and  special  patents  on  front  axle,  drive 
wheel  and  loco  cab. 

The  usual  fittings   are  supplied. 


DIFFERENT    TYPES    OF    ENGINES. 


211 


MINNEAPOLIS  TRACTION  ENGINE. 

The  Minneapolis  traction  engine  is  built  both  simple 


and  com.pound.  All  sizes  and  styles  have  the  return 
flue  boiler,  for  wood,  coal  or  straw.  Both  axles  extend 
entirely  and  straight  under  the  boiler,  giving  complete 


212  YOUNG  engineers'  GUIDE. 

support  without  strain.  The  cyHnder,  steam  chest  and 
guides  form  one  piece,  and  are  mounted  above  a  heater, 
secured  firmly  to  the  boiler ;  valve  single  simple  D  pat- 
tern. Special  throttle  of  the  butterfly  pattern,  large  crank 
pin  turned  by  special  device  after  it  is  driven  in,  so  in- 
suring perfect  adjustment;  special  patent  exhaust  noz- 
zle made  adjustable  and  so  as  always  to  throw  steam  in 
center  of  stack;  friction  clutch  with  three  adjustable 
shoes.  Boiler  is  supplied  with  a  superheater  pipe.  Woolf 
valve  and  reverse  gear.  Special  heavy  brass  boxes  and 
stuffing-boxes.  Sight  feed  lubricator  and  needle  feed 
oiler;  Gardner  spring  governor.  Complete  with  usual 
fittings.  This  is  a  simply  constructed  but  very  well  made 
engine. 


INDEX. 


A 

PAGE 

Ash  pit 70 

Attachments      for     traction 

engine    52 

Automatic  cut-oflf  engines.,  137 

B 

Babbitt  boxes,  how  to 189 

Blast   devices    30 

Blow-off  devices   30 

Boiler  and  engine,  test  ques- 
tions      52 

Boiler,  attachments    20 

Boiler,  heating  surface  of.  .    132 

Boiler,  how  to  manage 56 

Boiler,  locomotive   13 

Boiler,     questions    and    an- 
swers      95 

Boiler,  return  flue   15 

Boiler,  starting  a 57 

Boiler,   vertical    17 

Boiler,  water  for 62 

Boilers    11 

Boilers,    how    to     fill     with 

water   24 

Boilers,      terms      connected 

with  17 

Boss    43 

Box,  a  hot  87 

Boxes,  how  to  babbitt 189 

Bridges,  how  to  cross  safely  93 
Buying  an  engine 7 

C 

Clearance    35 

Clearance  and  lead 134 

Compound    and    cross-com- 
pound engines   141 

Compound  engines  ........  124 

Condensation     and     expan- 
sion     134 


^  PAGE 

Condenser   35 

Condensing  engines   140 

Connecting  rod   34 

Corliss  engines  138 

Crank   34,  41,  42 

Cross-head    33 

Cushion    35 

Cylinder  cocks   50 

Cylinder  cocks,  how  to  use,  83 

Cylinder  head   33 

Cylinder  lubricators 45 

D 

Differential  gear   46 

Double  eccentric,  how  to  set 
valve  82 

E 

Eccentric   36 

Eccentric  rod    36 

Eccentric,   slipping  of 83     ^ 

Economy    in    running   farm 

engine  116,  130 

Engine  and  boiler,  test  ques- 
tions      52 

Engine,  compound   I24 

Engines,  different  types  of.  137 
Engine,  how  to  manage. . . .   77 

Engine,  simple  32 

Exhaust  chamber   35 

Exhaust,  the   135 

Exhaust  nozzle   35 

Expansion  and  condensationi34 
Expansive  power  of  steam, 
how  to  use  122 

Farm    engine,    economy    in 

running    116,130 

Fire,  starting 70 


213 


214 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Firing,  economical    67 

Firing  w.th  coal 68 

Firing  with  straw  . 6g 

Firing  with  wood   69 

Fly-wheel    44 

Friction    126 

Friction  clutch    47,  88 

Fuel  and  grate  surface 130 

Fusible  plug  48,  72 

G 

Gas  and  gasoline  engines.  ..143 
Gas  engines  compared  with 

steam    144 

Gasoline     engines,     descrip- 
tion  of    146 

Gasoline    engines,    how    to 

operate    150 

Gasoline  engines,  what  to  do 
when  they  don't  work.  . .  .153 

Gauge,  water   20 

Gauge,   steam  22 

Governors    40 

Grain,  weight  per  bushel...  192 
Grate   surface    130 

H 

Heater    67 

Heating  surface  of  a  boiler,  132 

High  speed  engines   139 

Hills,  how  to  pass  with  en- 
gine    :  94 

Hole,  how  to  get  out  of . . .  .  92 

Hot  box,  a   87 

How   energy  is  lost 119 

How  heat  is  distributed.  . .  .120 

I 

Indicator,  steam 50 

Injectors     28-66 

J 

Journals   ., 4i>  44 

K 

Key,  gib,  and  strap 42 

Knock,  what  makes  an   en- 
gine       79 


PAGE 

L 

Lap  of  a  valve 35 

Lead    35,  80 

Lead  and  clearance 134 

Leaks  136 

Leaky  flues   'j2> 

License,      questions       asked 

applicants  for '. . .  .  173 

Link   gear    2^7 

Lubrication    85 

Lubricators 44 

M 

Meyer  valve  gear 40 

N 

Non-condensing  engines. .  . .  140 

F 

Pillow  blocks  44 

Piston    2^2, 

Ports     34 

Practical  points  of  economy.130 

Pulleys,  how  to  key 189 

Pumps,  boiler   25,  62, 

Q 

Questions  and  answers 

95,   173,  104 
Questions  and  answers,  the 

boiler    95 

Questions  and  answers,  the 

engine  104 

Questions,    test,    on    engine 

and  boiler   52 

R 

Reversing  gear  yj 

Road,   how   to   handle  trac- 
tion engine  on  the 91 

S 

Safety  valves   23 

Sand    patches,    how    to    get 
over  with  engine 93 


INDEX. 


215 


PAGE 

Setting  a  valve  35,  81 

Shaft 41 

Smoke   71 

Spark  arresters   31 

Sparks  72 

Stationary   engines 137 

Steam-chest   34 

Steam  cylinder   S3 

Steam,  how  to  use  expansive      * 

power  of    122 

Steam,  properties  of 121 

Steam  valve   34 

Stuffing  box 35,  so 

T 

Threshing  machines,  how  to 

run    158 

Attachments    167 

Balancing  a  cylinder 170 

Belting  167 

Concaves    162 

Conveyor  extension   164 

Covering  pulleys 171 

Cylinder 161 

Fan    . 163 

How  to  feed 169 

Self-feeder    ,...'. 165 

Separator,  how  to  set.  ..  .160 

Separator,  care  of 171 

Sieves  164 

Straw  rack 163 


PAGE 

Tailings  elevator 165 

Waste  169 

Wind  stacker  166 

Theory  of  steam  power....  116 

Throttling  engines   137 

Throttle  34 

Throw  of  an  eccentric 36 

Traction    engines,    different 

rriakes    193 

Traction     engine,     how     to 

handle  on  the  road 91 

Traction     engine,     how     to 
manage   77 

V 

Valve  gear  36 

Valve,  how  to  set  simple. . .  81 

Valve  seat  > 34 

Valve,  setting 35 

Valve  stem    35 

Valve,  steam    34 

W 

Whistle  signals,  code  of. . .  .191 
Woolf  reversing   gear 39 

Y 

Young  engineers,  points  for 

95,  104,  no 


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A  Modern  Treatise  by  Fred  T.  Hodgson.  An  exhaustive  work  including  a 
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Hodgson's  "Modern  Carpentry,"  "Common-Sense  Handrailing,"etc. 


Common-Sense  Handrailings 
and  How  to  Build  Them 


By  FRED  T.HODGSON 


ILLUSTRATED 


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Modern  Carpentry 

A    PRACTICAL     MANUAL 


FOR  CARPENTERS  AND  WOOD  WORKERS  OENERALiy 


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Scientific  Horse,  Mule 

#%      y^  ^^  t  •  *     By  J.  G.  HOLMSTROM, 

and  Ox  Shoeing    ^"'Xs^ifhSi 

A  STANDARD  TREATISE,  adapted  to  the  demand 
H  of  Veterinarians,  Farriers  ^and  the  Amateur 
Horseshoer.  Illustrated.  The  book  is  concisely 
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but  gives  the  best  methods  known  up  to  date. 

Although  there  are  principles  laid 
down  in  the  book  that  will  stand  so 
long  as  the  horse  is  a  horse,  the  author 
does  not  lay  any  claim  to  infalibility 
or  perfection;  he  has  simply  laid  a 
foundation  upon  which  the  ironer  of 
horses'  feet  may  build  and  develop  a 
perfect  structure. 


Among 


some   of  the  valuable  con- 
tents are  : — 

Mule  Shoeing. 

Ox  Shoeing. 

Diseases  of  the  Horse. 

Hot  and  Cold  Fitting. 

How  to  Shoe  Vicious  Horses. 

Kneesprung. 

Stringhalt. 

Contraction. 

Sand  Craclcs,  etc.,  etc. 


Anatomy  of  the  Foot. 

The  Shoe  and  How  to  Make  it. 

Bight  and  Wrong  Filling. 

How  to  Nail  the  Shoe. 

How  to  Fit  and  Recalk   Old 
Shoes. 

Interfering. 

Preparing  the  Foot  for  Shoe- 
ing. 

Shoeing  a  Trotter. 

Many  of  the  fine  illustrations  used  are  reproduced  by 

permission  from  books  issued  by  the  U.  S.  Department 

of  Agriculture. 

Large  12mo,  Cloth,  with  Special  Coyer  Design,  $1  00 


Sold  by  Booksellers  generally, 
receipt  of  price. 


or  sent  postpaid  upon 


FREDERICK    J.   DRAKE  ^  CO..  Publishers 


211-213  East  Madison  St. 


CHICAGO 


ALL  TECHNICAL  TERMS  AVOIDED 

Practical  Telephone  Hand  Book  and 
Guide  to  Telephonic  Exchange=^= 

HOW  TO  CONSTRUCT  AND  MAINTAIN  TELEPHONE  LINES 


By  T.  S.  BALDWIN.  M.  A.    tllustrated. 

Containing  chapters  on  "  The  Use 
of  the  Telephone,  Series  and  Bridg- 
ing phones,  Line  Construction,  Ma- 
terials to  be  used.  Locating  and  Cor- 
rection of  Faults  in  Instruments 
and  Lines." 

This  is  the  best  book  ever  pub- 
lished on  Farm  Telephones  and  has 
been  the  sensation  of  the  past  year 
in  telephone  circles.  It  is  the  only 
book  ever  issued  which  treats  the 
subject  exhaustively  and  compre- 
hensively. It  is  of  inestimable  value 
to  promoters  of  rural  party  lines, 
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be  constructed  and  cared  for. 
The  great  growth  jf  the  telephone  industry  during  the  past 
few  years,  and  in  response  to  the  demand  for  a  comprehensive 
book,  giving  a  clear,  terse  idea  of  the  different  principles  govern- 
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various  telephones  and  their  appliances,  the  Practical  Telephone 
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tion, and  it  has  been  the  aim  of  the  author  to  make  this  treatise 
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The  text  is  profusely  illustrated  by  cuts  of  commercial  aj)* 
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12  Mo.  Cloth,  fully  illustrated,  price $1.23 


BOOKKEEPING 
SELF-TAUGHT 

By  PHILLIP  C.  GOODWIN  = 

FE  W,  if  any  of  of  the  technical  works, 
which  purport  to  be  self-insti;ucting 
have  justified  the  claims  made  for 
them,  and  invariably  the  student 
either  becomes  discouraged  and  abandons 
his  purpose  and  aim,  or  he  is  compelled  to 
enlist  the  oJJices  of  a  professional  teacher, 
which  in  the  great  majority  of  instances  is 
impracticable  when  considered  in  relation 
to  the  demands  upon  time  and  the  condi- 
tion of  life  to  which  the  great  busy  public  is 
subjected. 
ry_^|l|||||ll  I  |^==~~:^=:^^3'/  Mr.  Goodwin's  treatise  on  Bookkeeping 

// 1  U IL  ^^^^^^^^^/^  is  an  entirely  new  departure  from  all 
^1  vC  '  ^MIJP^^T'^  former  methods  of  self -instruction  and  one 
^>«llllllll\N-WBii«f''^J_-^  which  can  be  studied  systematically  and 

alone  by  the  student  with  quick  and 
I)ermanont  results,  or  taken  up  in  leisure 
moments  with  an  absolute  certainty  of  ac- 
quiring t  he  science  in  a  very  short  time  and 
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mediocre  order.  .     •  ^       j, 

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In  addition  to  a  very  simple  yet  elaborate  explanation  in  detail  of  tne 
systems  of  both  single  and  double  entry  Bookkeeping,  beginning  with  the 
initial  transactions  and  leading  the  student  along  to  the  culminating  exhibit 
of  the  balance  sheet,  the  work  contains  a  glossary  of  all  the  .commercial 
terms  employed  in  the  business  world,  together  with  accounts  in  illustra- 
tion, exercises  for  practice  and  one  set  of  books  completely  written  up, 

J2mo  Cloth.    Price  $1.00. 
Sent  postpaid  to  any  address  upon  receipt  of  price. 

Frederick  J.  Drake  &  Co.,   Publishers 
211-213  EAST  MADISON  ST.,  CHICAGO 


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NRLF  DUE  AUG!    1987 


I 


26414 

TJ712 

Stevenson, 

J.H. 

S7 

Farm  engnes  and  how 

to  run  thei 

1. 

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TJIIZ 
S7 


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LIBBAfiT,  BRANCH  OF  THE  COLLEGE  OF  AGEICULTUEB,  DAVIST 
C  N  I VERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


